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A SHOKT MANUAL

OP

COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY

FOR CLASSICAL STUDENTS

BY

P. GILES, M.A.

FELLOW AND LECTURKR OT UfUANUEL COLLEGE
AND READBK IN COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

IN THE uNivERarrr or Cambridge

fwOot d\ 3j fiiv vv¥ irfvfiif elpTffiiyot fffTW

SECOND EDITION REVISED

S^ontion
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited

NEW TORE : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1901

All righU reterved

r

First EdUion 1895
Sectmd KdUion 1901

dj, U^

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

More than six years have passed since I undertook
to write " A Short Manual of Comparative Philology
for Classical Students." Considerable progress had
been made with the work and several sheets were
already printed off when in 1890 aud again in 1891
such large additions were made to my work as a
teacher in the University that it was impossible
for me to complete the book immediately. Hence
the long delay between its first announcement and
its appearance.

The book is intended for the use of Classical
students who, without being professed students of
Comparative Philology, desire some acquaintance
with its principles as applied to Latin and Greek.
Accordingly Parts II. and III. are devoted to what
is practically a comparative grammar of those
languages. As the book is not intended for com-
parative philologists I have not adduced, except in
a few instances, words from Sanskrit or other
languages of which the reader was likely to know
nothing. On the other hand, it seemed worth
while to cite, where possible, forms from English,
or from other members of the group of languages

VI COMPARA TIVE PHILOLOG Y

to which English belongs, when they have cognates
in the classical languages. For the same reason —
that it is better to proceed from the known to the
unknown than vice versa — many of the illustrations
in Part I. are drawn from English. But though
some account — ^necessarily incomplete — has been
given of the different forms which the same word
assumes in English and in the classical languages, no
attempt has been made to treat English otherwise
than as illustrative of Latin and Greek.

I have endeavoured throughout to keep the
needs of the learner before me. Hence, in not a
few instances, the same point will be found discussed
several times in different parts of the book, my
design being to elucidate in this manner the
different bearings of some important facts in the
science. I have not aimed at originality, for it
seemed to me that, in a subject of this nature,
/ originality must frequently mean the propounding
of hypotheses which the circumstances of the case
or the limits of space would render it impossible
to prove. Nothing is more objectionable in an
elementary work on a comparatively new subject
than to state dogmatically new theses, the truth or
falsity of which the learner haia no means of testing,
while his belief in the results of the investigation
as a whole may be rudely shaken by finding that
what he has accepted as sound is presently shown
to be the contrary. On the other hand, even had
it been advisable, it would have been impossible,
within the space at my disposal, to discuss all the
various views of authorities on the many questions

PREFACE vii

still unsettled with which the book deals. I have
therefore put in the text what seemed to me after
careful consideration to be the most plausible view
in such cases, while in the footnotes I have given-
other views which seemed worthy of mention.
Where no existing explanation seemed to cover
satisfactorily all the facts of the case, or where for
other reasons no certain conclusion could be reached,
I have indicated my doubts in the text or footnotes.
The notes are intended neither to be a bibliography
nor to give necessarily the originator of the view
which is mentioned, but only to indicate where a
discussion of the subject in hand may be found.
Advanced students will find a bibliography in
Brugmann's Orundriss which, the Syntax excepted,
has now been translated into English. Books or
papers which have appeared since the completion
of Brugmann's Phonology and Morphology have been
referred to more freely in the belief that the student
would find such references useful.

The first part of the book has been made as
simple and as free of symbols as possible. In the
other parts symbols were necessary and, in order
not to confuse the learner, who, it may be hoped,
will pass from this to larger works, I have employed
those used by Professor Brugmann. His Ormidriss
is at present the standard book of reference and
without a rival It seemed better therefore to
adopt his system of symbols though somewhat com-
plicated than to harass the serious student by
making him pass from one system to another. It
was not without hesitation that I came to this

viil COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

conclusion. To the difference in terminology and
symbols must be attributed, I think, the wide-
spread belief in England that the New Philology
represented by Brugmann and others is something
different in its nature and results from the Old
Philology that was taught by Curtius and Schleicher.
There is no doubt a difference, but it is a difference
not of character but of degree. The principles of
the new school were recognised and enunciated by
Curtius and Schleicher. The difference is that the
older philologists applied these principles less rigidly
than their successors. This difference in the appli-
cation of the principles no doubt makes consider-
able differences here and there in the results. But
there is no more reason to suppose the foundations
of the science shaken on that account than there
is to doubt the principles of Physical Science
because the theory of the formation of dew which
served as a model of scientific induction for many
generations of hand-books on Logic has now given
place to another.

The Syntax of the Noun was already completed
when Delbriick's large treatise (the continuation of
Brugmann's Grundriss) appeared. My treatment
of the subject was based, as any such treatment
must necessarily be, on Delbriick's earlier books
and papers, and I did not find it necessary to make
any changes. Some of his new views are indicated
in the footnotes, but, like several of his reviewers,
I think that Delbriick's second thoughts, contrary
to the proverb, are not always the wiser.

For the extraordinarily difficult subject of the

PREFACE IX

Comparative Syntax of the Moods and Tenses there
is, at present, no complete authoritative work in
existence. I had therefore to do what I could
auToSi5a/rro9, though for Greek and Sanskrit I had
Delbrtick's SyrUdkiische Forschungen to guide me.
Here as elsewhere Latin is more difficult and has
been less studied from the comparative point of view
than other languages. The syntactical examples I
have borrowed freely from the ordinary grammars,
chiefly however for Early Latin from Holtze's
Syntcucis priscorum scriptorum Latinorum and for
Greek from Kriiger's excellent Griechische SpracfUehre.
My arrangement is naturally different from theirs.

The account of the Greek and Italic dialects and
the specimens given will, it may be hoped, be useful
to the beginner who has at present nothing of the
kind accessible in English. References have been
given to the authorities from whom the text is
taken. For convenience the appendix is divided
into sections like the rest of the book, the numbers
running from 601 onwards.

As regards my obligations to others, those which
I owe to the books and lectures of my teacher
Professor Brugmann are the greatest. Without the
assistance of his great work Grundriss der vergleichen-
den Grammatik der indogermaniscJien Sprachen such
a summary as the present would have hardly
been possible. For the syntactical part Delbrtick's
treatises on Comparative Syntax have been equally
usefuL But I have read the literature of the
subject for myself, so far as it was accessible to me,
and have drawn my own conclusions.

X COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

I have to thank many friends for their help in
various parts of the work. Dr. Peile, Master of
Christ's College, my teacher and predecessor in the
same field, gave me advice at the beginning and
read some parts in manuscript. Dr. J. S. Eeid of
Gonville and Caius College, Mr. Neil and Mr.
Whibley of Pembroke College read all the early
part in the first proof. My friend and former tutor
the Rev. E. S. Roberts gave me the advantage of
his wide knowledge of the history of the Alphabet
and of the Greek dialects. Above all I gratefully
acknowledge the kindness of Dr. Postgate of Trinity
College, Professor Strachan of Owens College,
Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Friboui^,
Switzerland, who have undergone the drudgery of
reading the whole book in the first proof and have
greatly helped me in many ways. They have saved
me from many mistakes, for those that remain I
alone am responsible.

P. G.

Cambridge,

\h\K A'^l 1895.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND
EDITION

In this new edition the work, while retaining its
main features unaltered, has been carefully revised.
Although there are few pages where the advance of
knowledge has not called for some change, the only
sections added are those in Appendix D, which
deals with the oldest Latin as represented in the
inscription recently discovered. The increase in
bulk otherwise is due more to wider spacing in the
printing than to additional matter. The syntactical
examples from Plautus are now quoted throughout
from the Teubner text of Goetz and Schoell, which
has been completed since the book was published in
1895 ; references to the Greek tragic poets are, as
before, according to the numbering of the lines in
Dindorf's Poetae Scenid.

Contrary to the advice of several competent
judges, I have left the chapters on the uses of the
Noun and of the Verb in the position which they
occupied instead of putting the two together under
the head of Comparative Syntax. My reason is
that these chapters are what they are stated to be
and nothing more. The appearance of Eiemann and
Goelzer's Syntaxe Comparie du Grec et du Latin in
some 900 large octavo pages is sufficient proof that

xu COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

dLJiy attempt to deal fully with Syntax from the
point of view of Comparative Philology — theirs is
rather what we should call a Parallel Syntax —
would have occupied much more space than was at
my disposal.

The natural corollary to a book like this is an
etymological treatment of the vocabulary of the
Greek and Latin languages, in which the principles
here laid down could be applied to a greater number
of examples than the limits of the present work
would allow. Such a Latin Etymology I hope soon
to publish, and this will be followed at no gi-eat
interval by a similar treatment of Greek Etymology.

In issuing the book again, I wish to offer my
best thanks to the many scholars at home and
abroad who have sent me suggestions or corrections
and literature which would often otherwise (especi-
ally when published in Italy or Eussia) have been
inaccessible to me. Mr. Hertel, who translated the
first edition into German, sent me a number of
corrections for the iodex. Above all I owe much
to my friends and colleagues Professor Skeat, Dr.
Postgate, and Eev. J. H. Moulton for the friendly
interest they have always shown and the help
which from time to time they have rendered me.

Printer's errors are, I think, neither numerous
nor serious, thanks to the excellent workmanship
of Messrs. R & E. Clark's printers and the accuracy
and untiring vigilance of their reader.

P. G.

Cambridge,

^Oth October 1900.

CONTENTS

PAOB

Table of Abbreviations xzzy

Addenda xl

PAET I
GENERAL PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER I
WTuU is Philology r

ABCnOH

1 — 2. Inexactness of the name 3

8. Other names suggested 5

4. Scope of Philology in this sense .... 5

5. Methods ot studying Philology .... 5

CHAPTER II

WTuU is an Indo-Oermanie Langtutge f

6 — 7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo- Keltic . 7

8. All Idg. languages descended from one original 8

9 — 10. Distinctions between languages .... 9

Effects on English of borrowing .... 9

11. Effects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing 12

12. Criteria of Idg. languages 13

13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria 13

1 4. Identity of words having different sounds in different

languages 14

XIV COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

BBCTION PAGE

15. Classification of the Idg. languages . .15

16. Original home of the Indo-Germans .22

17. Civilisation of the primitive Indo-Germans 23

18. Connexion between different Idg. languages 24

19. ,, ,, Italic and Keltic dialects . 26

CHAPTER III

How do Indo-Oermanic Languages differ from other Languages ?

20. Latin equos and its cognates in other Idg. languages 26

28
28
28
29
32
33
34

21. Latin viduos

22. Nominative suffix, stem-suffix, root .

23. Division of equos and viduos as above

24. Definition of a root. How words come to be roots

25. Latin inens and its cognates in other Idg. languages

26. Component parts of mens. Its related verb forms

27. Latin dds and do and their cognates

28. Noun suffixes and Verb suffixes. Adaptation theory 34

29. Case suffixes and their uses

30. Loss of inflexions in English ....
31 — 2. Vowel-gradation in roots and suffixes

33. Distinction between Idg. and Isolating languages
84. ,, ,, Agglutinative ,,

35. „ ,, Semitic ,,

36. Are all these families sprung from one original ?

CHAPTER IV
The Principles of Modem Philology

37 — 8. Prescientific attempts at etymology

39. Scientific study of language
Bopp, Rask, J. and W. Grimm

40. Pott, Curtius, Schleicher, Miiller, etc.

41. Ascoli's theory of two il:-sounds, etc.

42. Brugmann's theory of nasals. Vowels
Verner's accent theory .

48 — 4. Principles of modern philology and their authors
45. Is Philology a science ?

35
36
37
39
89
43
44

45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
56

CONTENTS XV

{(BCriON PAOB

46. How Philology differs from the natural sciences . 56

47. Analogy 67

48. Logical analogy 58

49. Proportional ,, 59

60 — 3. Formal „ 60

54. Combination of logical and formal analogy . 63

55. Analogy in gender 64

56—7. ,, syntax 65

58. Semasiology 67

59-63. Borrowing of words 69

64. Dialect and language 74

65. Continuous action of natural laws .... 75

CHAPTER V

66. Definition of language 76

67. Physiology of language. Breath and voice 77

68. Mute consonants or stops 79

69. Spirants 80

70. Three classes of dental spirants .... 80

71. Greek spirUtts asper 81

72. Breathed and voiced consonants .81

73. Aspirates : qh, £h ; Ich, gh ; th, dh ; ph, hh . . 81

74. Affricates : pf, ts, kx 82

75. Change of aspirates through uffricates to spu-ants . 82

76. Nasals : m, n, ng. How they differ from spirants

and stops 83

77. Liquids : r, I and their different forms ... 83

78. Vowels 84

79. Classification of vowels : back, front ; high, mid,

low ; close, open ; rounded, unrounded . 85

80. Examples of vowels 86

81. Syllabic and non -syllabic sounds .... 87
Sonant nasals and liquids 87

82. Long and short sounds 88

83. Division of syllables. Diphthongs .... 88

84. Glides. On -glide and off-glide .... 90

85. Vowels with and without initial glide. SpirUuslenia 90

XVI COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SECTION PAGE

Table of the more important flonnds.

86. Final glide 91

87. Consonants with and without glides ... 91

CHAPTER VI

Accent

88. Acoent used in two flenses 91

89. Stress-accent 92

90. Pitch-accent 92

91. Languages with pitch-accent 92

92. Effects of pitch-accent 98

93. ,, stress-accent 93

94. Accent of Idg. language 94

95. Three degrees of pitch- and stress-accent . 95

96. Accent-points 95

97. Kinds of pitch-accents 95

98. Unaccented words 96

CHAPTER VII

Differeiuxs (1) between English and the Classical Languages and
(2) between English and other Oermanie Languages

99. Differences between the Germ, and other Idg.

languages 97

100. Grimm's Law 97

101. Idg. breathed aspirates in Germanic ... 98

102. Grassmann's I^w 98

103. Consonant combinations not affected by Grimm's

Law 99

104. Vemer'sLaw 99

105. Roots with byforms 101

106. Germanic changes of Idg. sonants . .101

107. Change of Idg. accent in Germanic .102
108 — 9. Assimilation ; final sounds 102

110. English spelling 103

111. Value of early forms in philology . .104

112. High German consonant change . .104

CONTENTS xvii

PART II
SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS

CHAPTER VIII
Indo-Oermanie Sounds

■■CTION PAOft

113. Idg. consonants 109

114. Idg. sonants Ill

115. Idg. diphthongs 112

CHAPTER IX
AUic Greek Alphabet and Pronunciation

116. Attic alphabet 112

117. Attic pronunciation. Stojis 114

118. Pronunciation of i" and -ffff-, -TT- .115

119. „ /> 116

120. ,, Greek nasals 116

121. Pronunciation of vowels 116

122. Proper and improper diphthongs. Pronunciation of

et, ov. History of at, €ij oi^ vi, i^, y^ tf . . 117

CHAPTER X
Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation

123. Alphabet 118

124. Pronunciation. Sto|>s 119

125. Spirants : /, h, s, v, i (j) 120

126. Liquids 121

127. Nasals 121

128. Vowels 122

129. Diphthongs 122

b

XVlll

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

CHAPTER XI
History of the original Indo-Oermanic sounds in Oreek and Latin

SECTION

130.

History

of p.

131.

b

132.

bh

183.

t.

134.

d.

135.

dh.

English/ sometimes =Idg. k and t

PAOB

123
124
124
124
125

Idg. ti in Greek. Latin // .
Latin I sometimes = Idg. d
In Latin =6 and rf, but not=/

medially 126

136. ,, k. Two kinds of gutturals and their

representation 127

137. „ ^ 128

138. „ $h. Latin peculiarities . .128

139. ff q^. Idg. languages form two groups in

treatment of labio-velars. AniUogy 130

140. „ f» 133

141. y. S^h 134

141.* Unlabialised velars : qy f, gh 135

Table of gutturals 187

142. History of «. Gk. spiritus asper. Latin r =5. . 188

143. „ 2 140

144. ,, w?andjf; y 141

145. Number of original liquids uncertain 141

146. History of ; 142

147. „ r 143

148. ,, wi 143

149. „ n 144

150. „ nandr9 144

151. Liquids as sonants 144

152. History of ; and f^ 145

153. ,, randp- 145

154. Long sonant liquids 146

155. Nasals as sonants 146

156. History of tji and rp,m 147

157. ,, n and nn 147

158. Long sonant nasals 148

159. History of Vowels : d, Latin changes . 149

CONTENTS XIX

■CCTION PAOE

160. History of Vowels : a 160

161. ,, ,, ?. Latin' changes . 150
162! „ ,. « 162

163. ,, ,, 0. Latin changes .162

164. ., „ « 163

165. ,, ,, I. Latin changes 154

166. „ „ » 164

167. ,, „ il. Latin changes . 165

168. „ „ tt 166

169. „ „ 9 156

170. Varying treatment of} and ^ according to position . 156

171. } and y preceding a sonant in the same syllable 157

172. ,, medially between vowels . . . .167

173. ,, following a sonant in the same syllable 168

174. History of o}. Latin changes 158

175. „ «* „ 169

169

160

161

.161

180. Changes in Latin owing to jf 162

181. Diphthongs with long sonant 163

176. „ o{

177. „ a^

178. „ ^

179. ,, ojf

CHAPTER XII
On wnvt Combinations of Consonants

182. Cause of assimilation 164

183. Chronology. Different laws prevail at different times 165

184. Formal analogy. Loss of consonants in combination.

Logical analogy 166

185. Influence of suffix on final sound of root . .167

186. New suffix formed of last sound of root + old suffix . 168

187. Double consonants. Their simplification 168

188. Groups of three or more consonants. Influence of s

in simplifying groups . . - . . .169

189. Initial combinations with s followed by stop simplified

in Latin 171

190. Varying changes according as a consonant is followed

by one or more consonants 172

XX COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SECTION PAOX

191. Combinations of two consonants .... 172

192. „ two stops 173

193. ,, stop + spirant, of stop + nasal . .' 174

194. Latin -^71- and -£fn-. Origin of gerund . .175

195. Latin -kn- 176

196. Combinations of stop + liquid . 177

197. „ stop + j .177

198. „ stop + If. 6k. initial ^i<-, Latin 11^- . 179

199. Combinations where the first element is a spirant . 180

200. 81 in Greek 181

201. 8]^ in Greek and Latin 181

202. Loss of 5 before nasals and liquids . .182

203. 8r in Greek and Latin initially . .182

204. „ „ medially .... 183

205. Combinations where the first element is a nasal or

liquid 184

206. mr in Greek and Latin 184

207. Nasals and liquids followed by -t- in Greek . 185

208. Combinations of )f with } 186

Tables of consonant combinations . . . 187 — 192

CHAPTER XIII
On some other Sound Changes

209. Contraction of vowels in Idg. period ; in suffixes of

dat. sing., gen. pi., loc. sing. ; contraction with
augment 193

210. Contractions in Greek and Latin .194

211. „ i by loss oft 195

212. „ » Jf 195

213. „ „ '9- in Greek .... 196

214. „ „ -A- in Latin . . . .196

215. Anaptyxis : in Latin -do- ; in foreign words in Latin . 196
Table of the chief vowel contractions.

216. Anaptyxis : in Greek 197

217. Compensatory lengthening of vowels . .198
218—220. ,, „ ,, in Greek . . 198
221—226. ,, „ „ in Latin . . 200

227. Shortening of vowels 201

CONTENTS

XXI

8BGTION
228.

229.

230—3.

234.

235.

236.

237—8.
239.
240.
241.

242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.

PAGE

Loss of a syllable. Syncope only in Latin. Loss

of one of two similar syllables. . 201

Prothesis : only in Greek 203

Prothesis of a, e, o, t . 203

Canses of prothesis 204

Phonetics of the sentence. Differences between

spoken and written language .... 205
Consequences of the fusion of words in the

sentence 205

Words wrongly divided 206

(&^X^(j and a^/Xo; 207

Wrongly divided words in English . 207
Loss of final consonants ; assimilation ; v i4>€\-

KVffTucdy . ....... 208

Loss of final s in Latin 209

Crasis. Greek dv, dir, kot, etc 209

Latin et, ae^ cUque 210

Scansion of diphthongs before vowels in Homer . 210

Tpcrrl and irp^j 211

^fande/s 211

Survival of double forms 211

CHAPTER XIV
Accent

249. Pitch and stress accent 212

250. Two systems of accentuation to be discussed . 213

251. Vowel gradation. Interchange of e and o affected

by analogy 213

252. Vowel series : not equally conspicuous in all

languages 214

253. Typical forms of roots. Weak forms arise from

stress accent . . ' 215

254. I/evelling of vowel grades in Latin .216

255. Special cause of levelling in Latin .217

256. Long vowels in the short vowel series .217

257. Vowel series rarely complete in any language . 217

258. The e:o series 218

259. Examples oteio series 219

XXll COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SECTION PAOR

260. Examples of 0 : d series 221

261. ,, o:o ,, 221

262. „ dio , 222

263. ,, the 0 and 0 series . . . 222

264. Other interchanges of vowels and their causes 223

265. Vowels of three lengths 223

Note, Streitberg's lengthened grades . 224

266. Difference in nature between Greek and Latin

accent 225

267. Cause which produced special Greek accent.

Ghauges in position of accent under new

system 226

268. Accentuation of dactylic words .... 227

269. Analogy in accentuation 228

270. Nature of the Greek accents .228

271. Interchange of acute and circumflex . 229

272. Two changes in the special accent of Latin 230

273. Traces in Latin vocalism of the earlier accent . 231

274. Changes of quantity in Latin produced by streas

accent 231

PART III
WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS

CHAPTER XV
Otntral Principles of Word FomuUion

275. Words in combination 235

276. Structure of the word and sentence 236

277. Differences between substantive and (i. ) verb, (ii. )

pronoun, (iiL ) adjective. English Jmt . 237

278. . Adverbs. Analogy in their formation . 239

279. Analogy in the formation of English adjectives

and adverbs 241

280. Course of development in such formations :

idSdriy, \iy€ff0ai 243

CONTENTS xxui

CHAPTER XVI
Noun Morphology

8KCTI0K PAGE

281. Parts in a noun form. Suffixes primary and

secondary 244

282. Compound stems. Analogy in such stems . . 245

283. Second part of compound stem becoming suffix.

£ng. -ly, Lat. -iUr 246

284. Case forms in compounds 248

285. Brugmann's criteria to distinguish composition

from juxtaposition 249

286. Mistaken division of compounds and its results . 249

287. Living and dead suffixes 251

288. Four methods of forming new substantives 252

CHAPTER XVII
Classification of Nouns

289. Root nouns (a) without, (b) with gradation . 258

290. Nouns with formative suffixes. Suffixes ; their

signification 254

291. Suffix -a and feminine gender .... 255

292. Gender in other suffixes 257

293. Natural sex and grammatical gender . . 257

294. Gender in words indicating objecta without sex . 259

295. Gender in different stems 261

296. Number. Three numbers. Plural in abstract

nouns 268

297. The dual : its earliest usage : lost in Latin . 264

298. Neuter plural with singular verb 264

299. Schmidt's theory of this construction . . 266

300. Noun cases. Are two confused in Instrumental ? 268

301. Idg. system of cases incomplete .... 269

302. The vocative not a case 269

303. No separate forms for some cases 269

304. Origin of cases. Endings pronominal and post-

positional. Grammatical and local cases . 270

305. Three causes of syncretism in cases. Table of

syncretism 272

XXIV COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

CHAPTER XVIII
Case Suffixes

SKCTION PAQE

306. Nominative singular 274

307. Vocative ,, 276

308. Accusative ,, 275

309. Genitive singular. Gradation in suffix. Loss in

Latin. Gk. -roi 276

310. Ablative singular. Separate from gen. only in -o-

stems 278

311. Dative singular. Confused in Gk. with loc. . 278

312. Locative singular, with and without suffix . 279

313. Extended use of locative in Greek . .279

314. Instrumental singular. Two suffixes . 281

315. Dual : noro. voc. ace 282

316. Dual: other cases 283

317. Nom. voc. plural 283

318. Accusative „ 285

319. Genitive „ 286

320. Ablative „ 287

321. Dative „ 287

322. Locative „ with and without loc. suffix . 287

323. Instrumental plural 289

CHAPTER XIX
Pr&iiaminal Declension

324. Pronouns which distinguish gender . 290

325. Stems of such pronouns in Gk. and Lat. 290

326. Differences between nominal and pronominal

declension 293

327. Personal pronouns 297

328. Forms of pers. pron. in singular . .298

329. ,, ,, dual and plural 300

330. Possessive adjectives 301

CONTENTS XXV

CHAPTER XX
Uses of the Cases

SSCnOK PAQX

331. Nominative 301

332. Vocative 302

333. Accusative 303

(1) with verbs of motion towards, (2) of time p. S04, (8) of

space i&., (4) of content ife., (6) with transitive verbs
p. a05, (6) with substantives and adjectives p. 807, (7)
adverbial p. 809, (8) with prepositions p. 811.

334. Genitive 311

(1) possessive p. 312, (2) partitive p. 813, (8) with substan-

tives of verbal nature p. 814, (4) with verbs p. 816, (5)
with ai^ectives p. 316, (6) predicative p. 817, (7) ad-
verbial p. 818, (8) with prepositions p. 319.

335. Ablative 319

(1) Pure ablative, (2) abl. of comparison p. 822.

336. Dative 323

(1) with verbs, (2) with substantives p. 826, (8) with Skdjec-
tives^and adverbs p. 826, (4) final ib.

387. Locative 329

(1) of space p. 830, (2) of time p. 831, (8) of persons ib., (4)
of persons with verbs ib., (5) with substantives and
adjectives p. 332, (6) of motion towards p. 388, (7)
with prepositions ib., (8) adverbial ib.

338. Instramental 334

(1) sociative, (2) of likeness and equality p. 835, (3) of cause

p. 336, (4) of means ib., (5) with verbs ib., (6) with sub-
stantives, adjectives and numerals p. 337, (7) of
measure p. 888, (8) of place ib., (9) of time ib., (10)
adverbial ib., (11) with prepositions p. 839.

339. Absolute cases 339

CHAPTER XXI
Fragments of Cases

340. Adverbs and prepositions : bow related . .341

341. Adverbs which are relics of declension-forms 342

342. Conjunctions : primitive, nominal, pro-

nominal 343

XXVI

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

CHAPTER XXII

Stem Formation in ifie Noun

BBCnON

PAOB

343.

Simple and complex suffixes

344

344.

Classification of suffixes according to sounds

345

345.

Influences which affect suffixes

.

347

346.

Stems

in stops. Labial stems

347

347.

Dental stems. Stems in -^ .

348

348.

Stems

in -rf-, -ioSrp

348

349.

„ 'k' {'tc- and -q-) .

349

350.

„ -g- {•§' and -g-), -7^

350

351.

,, spirants. -«- stems

350

362.

„ -i«- ....

351

353.

„ -I^S' ....

353

354.

,, liquids, -r- stems

354

355.

„ -ter-, -tor- .

355

356.

•

„ nasals ....

357

357.

Different grades in different meanings

358

358.

Stems

in -en-, -on-

859

359.

»»

,, -wi^n-, -mon-y -win-, -vm-

360

360.

11

„ -j«n., 'ion-, 'In-, -in- (-jt^-)-

Lat. -tum-

361

361.

»»

„ -yen-, -jfon-, -fin-, -un- (.j.iM-),

-mio- .

362

362.

11

„ -ent; -07U-, -nt-

363

363.

Gradations in -nt- stems

364

364.

Stems

in -ifen/., -]^nt' .

365

365.

„ vowels and diphthongs .

366

366.

„ -i-. Confusion with other ste

ms in Latin

367

367.

, , -i- confused in Greek and Lati

11 adjectives

368

368.

„ -ti- ....

368

369.

„ 'tat- and -tiU-

368

370.

,, -n-, -li-y -mi-y -ni-

369

371.

,, -u- ; variations

370

372.

„ -tu- ....

371

373.

„ -nu'y -ru; -lu-

371

374.

ll -i-i-ie-) . . .

371

375.

,, -0- and -d-. Relation to conj

I. stems

373

376.

Us

es of -0- and -d- stems

373

CONTENTS

xxvii

sccnoK

377 — 404. Stems in consonant +0- (d-) . . . .
877 -5*0-; 878 4o.; 879 -wte-, ^^to-, -y ^to. ; 880 -do-;
881 -£o., .»&- ; 882—8 -qo-, .iqo-, -iqo-, -fijo., •ago-, -riico-,
Lat .<M»., -lojco- ; 884 -«o- ; 886—6 -ro-, -ero- ; 887 -tero-;
888 -tro- ; SSQ-dAro- ; 890-1 -to-, -/to-, -cto-, -tto-, Lat.
-cto-, -dAto- ; 892 .««ro-, .«to- ; 893 -mo- ; 894 4vimo -of
superlative ; 396— « .no- ; 897 -eno-, ^no- ; 898 .ifw- ;
899 -ino. ; 400 -meno-, -mono-, -mno- ; 401 -irvi^-, Lat.
-tt«o- ; 402 -j[o., .ijo-, Lat -eio- ; 408 -vo-, .uiitu, -rt f*-;
404 Lat. -iw)., -tlvo;

405. Stems in -5|-, -6^-

PAOS

374

392

CHAPTER XXIII

The Numerals

406. Decimal and duodecimal systems 398

407 — 416. Cardinal numbers ; one to ten* . .394

417 — 8. Eleven to nineteen 397

419. The Tens 398

420. Twenty 393

421—2. Thirty to ninety 398

423. Hundred 399

424. The hundreds 399

425. Thousand 400

426. Ordinal formed from cardinal numbers . . 400
427—435. First to tenth 401

436. Twentieth to hundredth 402

437. Ordinals beyond hundredth .403

THE VEEB

CHAPTER XXIV
Verb Morphology

438. History of the Verb 403

439. Original Idg. Verb forms 404

440 — 2. History of original forms in Gk., Lat, and Ger-
manic 405

443. Tendency to analysis in modern languages . 406

444. Characteristics of the Verb .... 407

XXVlll

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SBCTIOM PAGE

445. Augment 407

446. Reduplication. Difference between Greek and

Latin 409

447. The voices of the Verb 410

448. Greek passive 410

449. Latin „ , originally only in 3rd person 411

450. Personal endings of active and middle .413

451. Scheme of personal endings .... 413

452. Difficulties in reconstructing original endings . 414
453 — 461. Primary endings of active voice . . 415
462—464. Secondary „ „ „ „ . ■ 418
465—472. Primary „ „ middle „ . .419
473—476. Secondary „ ,, ,. „ . .421

477. Perfect „ 422

CHAPTER XXV
2^6 Present Formations

478. Present suffixes identical with those of future

and aorist 423

479. Classification of present formations . . . 424

480. I. Person suffixes added to root with or without

thematic vowel 426

(a) roots without them. v. and without reduplication ib.,
(b) roots in strong or weak form+them. v. p. 427, (c)
roots reduplicated but without them. v. i6., (<f) roots
reduplicated and with them. v. p. 428, (e) roots with
reduplication in -f- ib., (J) roots with intensive re-
duplication p. 429, O7) roots with them. v. in weak
form ib,

481. n. Roots with a formative suffix in -n- preceding

the person suffix 429

(o) -no- -na- ifc., (6) .ne- -no- p. 480, (c) Greek -avo- (i.)
without, (ii.) with nasal in root p. 481, (d) ' infixed '
nasal p. 432, (e) .?!«](• .m7., -ni^ -nv- p. 488 (/) -nt^o-
•nyo- p. 434.

482. in. Verb stems in -s-. Parallelism between

noun and verb. Non -thematic and thematic
forms 435

483. IV. Verb stems in -sko- {a) without, (6) with

reduplication 436

CONTENTS XXIX

SBCnOK PAOE

484. V. Verb sterna in -to- (-^) .... 438

485. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -rf- . . 489

486. Other possible consonant suffixes 439

487. VII. Verb stems in -|o-. Suffix mainly secondary 440

(a) -{o- appended to (i.) strong, (ii.) weak form of root, (iii.)
to long vowel p. 440, (6) root with intensive re-
duplication i&., (c) -j[o. secondary p. 441, denomina-
tives <5.

488. Causatives and intensives in -iio- 443

489. Greek desiderative verbs 445

490. Latin frequentative , , 445

CHAPTER XXVI
Thi Fviure

491. Original future in -sio- doubtful .... 446

492. Greek future forms 446

493. Latin futures of three types .... 448

CHAPTER XX.VII
TheP&rfect

494. Distinctive characteristics of the perfect . . 449

495. Greek perfects in -ica 450

496. „ aspirated perfects 451

497. Latin perfect ; confused with -s- aorist . . 451

498. „ perfects in -vf and -ui . . . . 453

CHAPTER XXVIII
Past Formations

499. Aorist, imperfect, pluperfect .... 453

500. Strong aorist and imperfect identical Gk. 2nd

aor. pass 453

501. Latin imperfects in -ham 454

602. The -s- aorists 455

* 503. Thematic -$- aorists 456

504. Aorists in -es- and -98- 457

cxx COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SECTION PAGE

505. Pluperfect a late derelopment .... 457

506. Greek pluperfect 457

507. Latin „ 457

CHAPTER XXIX
The Moods

508. Subjunctive and optative 458

509. Thematic subj. from non-thematic indie. . . 459

510. Subj. of thematic stems 459

511. Analogy in forms of subj 460

512. Optative suffix of two types .... 461

513. Optative of -s- aorist 461

514. „ „ thematic stems .... 462

515. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives 462
516—523. Imperative 464

517 bare stem p. 464, 618 8tem+('Ai p. 4(55, 519 stem+
tod 0)., 520 iiUunctive as imper. p. 460, 521 later
developmentB p. 4^7, 522 imper. of 6k. middle i5.,
528 Latin imper. passive.

CHAPTER XXX

Verbal Nouns

524—5. Infinitives are noun cases. Different languages

affect different cases 468

526. Greek dative infinitives 469

527. ,, locative ,, 470

528. Latin infinitives active 470

529. Latin supines 471

530. „ infinitives passive 472

531. ,, gerund 472

532. Participles 473

533. ,, in -rU' 473

534. Perfect participle active 473

535. Participles in -meno-, -mono- .... 474

536. „ „ -to-, -tej^- 474

537. Latin participle in -turo- 474

538. ,, gerundive participle 474

CONTENTS

XXXI

CHAPTER XXXI

BECnOK

539.
540—2.

540.

541.

542.

543—4.

545—555.

545.

546.

547.

548.

549.
550.
551.
552.

553.
554.
555.
556—567.
556.

557.
558.
559.
560.
561.
562.
563.
564.
565.

Ubu of (he Verb Forms

PAGE

Difficulties of verb syntax ... 475

Uses of the Voices 476

Different methods of forming passive . 476

Transitive and intransitive meanings of active . 476

The middle voice ...'... 476

Verb-types. Dorative and perfective verbs . 477

Uses of the Tenses 481

Dnrative and momentary forms in Greek . .481
Tenses a later development . . .482

Present may express (i. ) action, (ii. ) process, (iii }

sUte 483

(iv.) present with adverb of time = past . .487
Imperfect ; narrative tense ; relation to aorist ;

three values 488

Perfect ; an intensive present ; expresses a state 491

Greek plaperfect 493

Latin „ 494

Aorist ; (L) perfective, (ii) ingressive, (iii.) present 495

(iv.) of immediate past 498

(v.) of future 499

Latin passive aorist-perfect .... 499

Future 500

Future perfect 501

Uses of the Moods 502

Different views regarding original meaning of

subj. and opt. 502

Chief difficulties of the question . 503

Subjunctive has three values .... 505

Subjunctive of will 505

,, ,, interrogation .... 508

,, ,, future (potential) 509

Optative has three values 510

Optative of wish 610

„ ,, interrogation 511

„ ,, Aiture (potential) .... 512

xxxil COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SECTION PAOB

566. Greek optative with and without dy . .513

567. Greek indicative forms in unfulfilled wishes . 513
668—570. Latin subjunctive 614

568. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjanctive new

forms 514

569. History of Lat. present and aorist perfect subj. . 514

570. ,, „ ty imperfect and pluperfect ,, . 615

APPENDIX

A

The Greek and Latin Alphabets

601. Origin of Greek alphabet 517

602. Adaptation of Phoenician alphabet .518
608. Development of new Greek symbols . .519

604. Eastern and Western Greek alphabets 520

605. Origin of Latin and other Italic alphabets . 521

606. Alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups . 522

607. Confusion of breathed and voiced stops . 522

608. Oscan, Umbrian, Faliscan alphabets. Etruscan

influence 523

609. Adaptation of superfluous Greek symbols for

numerals ....... 523

B

The Greek Dialects

610. Physical features of Greece encourage develop-

ment of dialects 525

611. Linguistic without racial changes . 526

612. The Dorian invasion 526

613. Three stocks : Achaean, Dorian, Attic-Ionic 527
614 — 6. Sources of our knowledge of dialects. Causes of

corruption 528

617 — 8. Arcadian with specimen 529

619—620. Cyprian „ „ 532

CONTENTS

XXXlll

PAOE

534
534
535
536

538
540
542
542
542
544
546

8BCTION

621. Aeolic : comprehends three dialects .

622. Sources for Aeolic

Fick's Homeric Aeolic

623. Thessalian with specimen

624. Leshian and Aeolic of Asia Minor with speci-

mens

625. Boeotian with specimens

626. Common characteristics of the three dialects
627 — 631. Dialects of North- West Greece in three groups .

628. Common characteristics of all three groups

629. Locrian with specimen

630. Phocian including Delphian with specimen

631. Aetolian, etc 546

632. Dialects of Achaea and Elis .... 546

633. Elean with specimens 548

634. Doric ; where spoken ; sources .... 550

635. Common characteristics of all Doric dialects . 550

636. ditUedus aeverior, dial, mitts .... 552

637. Laconian with specimens 552

638. Heraclean with specimen 554

639. Messenian 554

640. Dialect of Argolis and Aegina with specimen 556

641. ,, „ Megara, Selinus, Byzantium, with

specimen 556

642. ,, ,, hucolic poets 558

643. ,, „' Corinth, Corcyra, Syracuse, with

specimens 558

644 — 5. ,, ,, Crete (Gortyn) with specimen 560

646. ,, ,, Melos, Thera, Cyrene, with specimens 562

647. „ ,, Bhodes, Gela, Agrigentum, with speci-

mens 562

648. Doric and Ionic contraction .... 562
649 — 656. Ionic with specimens 564

650. Ionic of Homer 564

651. ,, „ lyric and elegiac poets .... 564

652. Divisions of Ionic 566

653. Common characteristics of all divisions 566

654. Characteristic differences of divisions . 566

655. KO' mi- not found on inscriptions 566

656. Belations of Ionic and Attic Greek . 566

XXXIV

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

C

The Italic Dialects

SXOnON PAGE

657. Classification of dialects 568

658. Oscan records 569

659. Umbrian „ 570

660 — 1. Difference between Oscan and Umbrian . 570

662 — 5. „ „ these dialects and Latin and

Faliscan 571

663. Differences in phonology 571

664. „ „ inflexion of nonn .... 572

665. „ „ „ „ verb . .573

Specimens of Oscan . . 574—577

„ ,, Umbrian . . 577 — 678

D

The Earliest Latin

666 — 7. Linguistic peculiarities of the archaic inscription
. found in the Forum at Rome: with photo-
graphic facsimile 579

INDICES

Index of Greek words 581

„ Italic „ 598

,, Germanic ,, 610

,, subjects 617

ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE NAMES OF
AUTHORS, ETC., REFERRED TO

[References to other works are given in fall where they occur.]

AJ.P.= American Journal of Philology (in 2l8t volame).

ArchlT [fur lateinischen Lexicographie und Grammatik] (in 12th

vol.).
B.6.=Beitrage zur kunde der indogermaniachen sprachen, heraus-

gegeben von Dr. Ad. Bezzenberger und Dr. W. Prellwitz (in

26th vol.).
Bartholomae, Studien [zur indogermaniachen Sprachgeschichte].

1890, 1891.
Baunack, Johannes und Theodor, Ins[Ghrift] v[on] Gortyn. 1885.
,, „ ,j Studien [auf dem Gebiete des

griechischen und der arischen Sprachen]. 1886.
Bechtel, Fritz, Hauptprobleme [der indogermaniachen Lautlehre

seit Sdeioher]. 1892.
Bechtel, I. I., = Inschriften des ionischen dialekts. 1887. (In

Abhandlungen der historisch - philologischen Classe der

koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen :

34ter Band.)
Berichte d[er] k[dnigliohen] s[achsi8chen] G[esell8chaft] d[er]

W[i8sen8chaften]. Quoted by year.
Blass*=Ueber die Aussprache des griechischen von F. Blass (3rd

edition).
Bronisch, G., Die oskischen i und e Vocale. 1892.
Bmgmann, K., Or. or (?rMnrfr. = Grundriss der vergleichenden

Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen von E. B. und

B. Delbriick. 1886—1900.
(Brugmann's part, comprehending Phonology and

Morphology, has been translated into English in five

xxxvi COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

volumes ; the new edition of vol. i. (1897) and the three

volumes of Syntax by Delbriick have not been translated.)
Brugmann, K., Or. O. = Griechische Grammatik, 3rd ed. 1900.

(In Iwan von Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-

Wissenschaft, vol. 2.)
Buck, C. D., Yocalismus [der oskischen Sprache]. 1892.
B[ulletin de] C[orrespondance] H[elUnique]. (In 28rd year.)
Bull[etin de la] Soc[i^t6] Ling[uistique]. 1869—.
C.I.G.= Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum.
C. I. L.= Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
C.R. or Class. Rev. = Classical Review (in 14th voL).
Cauer^= Delectus inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum

memorabilium, iterum composuit P. Cauer. 1883.
Caw. = Fouilles d'fipidaure par P. Cavvadias. Vol. i. 1893.
Conway, R. S., The Italic Dialects. 2 vols. 1897.
Curtius, G., Greek Verb (English translation by Wilkins and
England). 1880.
„ ,, Studien [zur griechischen und lateinischen Gram-
matik]. 10 vols. ; the last appeared in 1878.
D.I. = Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, heraus-

gegeben von Dr. H. CoUitz und Dr. F. Bechtel, 1885— (still

unfinished).
Delbriick, B., A.L.I.=Ablativ Localis Instrumentalis. 1867.
,, „ S.F.=SyntaktischeForschungen. 6 vols. 1871-88.
,, ,, Syntax (in Brugmann and D.'s Grundriss; see
Brugmann).
Dittenberger, Guil., Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum, [1883].

2nd ed. 2 vols. 1898, 1900.
Draeger, A., Hist[orischej Synt[ax der lateinischen Sprache]. 2

vols. 2nd ed. 1878.
Fick, 'A., Vergleiohendes Worterbuch der indogermanischen

Sprachen. 2 vols. 1890-94.
Fleckeisen's [Neue] JahrbUcher [fur Philologie und Paedagogik].

Series concluded in 1897.
Goidanich, P., I continuatori ellenici di ti indo-europeo. 1893.

,, ,, Del i)erfetto e aoristo latino. 1896.
Goodwin, W. W., [Syntax of the Greek] Moods and Tenses. New

ed. 1889.
Hermes, herausgegeben von G. Kaibel und C. Robert. In 35th vol.
Hirt, H., [Der indogermanische] Akzent. 1895.
,, ,, [Der indogermanische] Ablaut 1900.

ABBREVIATIONS xxxvii

Hoffmann [0., Die grieohischen Pialekte in ihrem historischen

Zosammenhange mit den wichtigsten ihrer Quellen].

1891—. 3 vols, published.
Hiibschmann [H., Ziir] Casuslehre. 1875.
I.F. = Indogennanische Forschungen : Zeitschrift fiir indogerman-

ische Sprach- und Altertumskunde herausgegeben von K.

Brugmann und W. Streitberg ; mit dem Beiblatt : Anzeiger

fur indogennaniaohe Spracb- und Altertumskunde, herausge-
geben von W. Streitberg. (In 11th vol.)
I[nscriptione8] 6[raeciae Septentrionalis] i. ed. Dittenberger. 1892.

„ Graeoae Siciliae et Italiae, ed. Eaibel. 1890.

J[onrnal of] P[hilology]. (In 27th vol.)
E.Z.= Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachforschung begrundet

von A. Euhn ; herausgegeben von £. Euhn und J. Schmidt

(In 37th vol.)
Elnge, F., D[eutsches] e[tymologische8] W[orterbuch]. (Now in

6th ed.)
Eretschmer, P., Einleitung [in die Geschichte der grieohischen

Sprache]. 1896.
Eriiger, Dialekt =Part ii. of E. W. Eriiger's Griechische Sprach-

lehre. 5th ed. 1879.
Riihner-Blass, Ausfiihrliche Grammatik der grieohischen Sprache

von R. E., besorgt von Fr. Blass. 2 vols. (Phonology and

Morphology.) 1890, 1892.
Ktthner-Gerth, Syntax of above. Edited by B. Gerth. Vol. 1.

1898.
Eurschat, Lit Gramm.= Grammatik der littauischen Sprache von

Dr. F. Eurachat 1876.
Lagercrantz, O., Zur griechischen Lautgeschichte (Upsala Uni-

versitets Irsskrift). 1898.
Liden, £., Studien [zur altindischen und vergleichenden Sprach -

geschichte]. 1897.
Lindsay, W. M., The Latin Language. 1894.
M.U.=Morphologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebeite der in-

dogermanischen Sprachen von Dr. H. Osthoff und Dr. E.

Brugmann. (6 vols., 1878 — 1890, complete.)
He38terhan8^= Grammatik der attischen Inschriften von Dr. E.

Meisterhans. 2nd ed. 1888.
Heringer, B., Beitrage [zur Geschichte der indogermanischen

Declination]. 1891.
Meyer, G., Gr. Gr. = Griechische Grammatik. 8rd ed. 1896.

xxxvm COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

Meyer, L., Verg. Gramm. ^YergleichADde Grammatik der griechis-

ehen nnd lateinischen Sprache yon Leo Meyer. 2 yoIb.

Ist Tol. in 2nd ed. 1882 — 4.
Michel, C, Eecneil d'inscriptions grecques. 1900.
Monro, D. B., H.G.^= A Grammar of the Homeric "Dialect. 2nd

ed. 1891.
N.E.D.=A New English Dictionary ; edited by J. A. H. Murray

and H. Bradley. 1884—.
Osthoff, H., Psychologisohes Moment = Das physiologische und

psychologische Moment in der sprachlichen Formenbildung.

(Sammlung gemeinyerstandlicher wissenschaftlicher Vor-

trage herauagegeben von R. Virchow und Fr. v. Holtzen-

dorff. Heft 327.)
P. u. B. Beitrage = Beitrage zur Geachichte der deutschen Sprache

und Literatur, herauagegeben yon H. Paul und W. Braune.

(In 26th vol. ; now edited by E. Sievers.)
Paul's Grundriss=Grundris8 der germanischen Philologie, her-

ausgegeben von H. Paul. I. Band. 1891. (Now in

2nd ed.)
Persson, P., Wurzelerweiterung=Studien zur Lehre yon der

Wurzelerweiterung und Wurzel variation. 1891.
von Planta, R., Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte. 2

vols. 1892—1897.
Prellwitz, W., Etymologisches Wdrterbuch der grieohischen

Sprache. 1892.
Rheinisches Museum [fur Philologie], herauagegeben v. O. Bibbeck

und F. Biicheler. (In 55th vol.)
Riemann and Goelzer, Syntaxe (Grammaire Gompar6e du Grec et

du Latin). Par 0. R. et H. G. 1897.
Roby, H. J., Latin Grammar = A Grammar of the Latin Language

from Plautus to Suetonius. 2 vols. 5th ed. 1887.
Schmidt, J., Pluralbildungen [der indogermanischen Neutra].

1889.
Schweizer-Sidler, H., und Surber, A., Grammatik der lateinischen

Sprache. Erster Teil. 1888.
Seelmann = Die Aussprache des Latein von E. S. 1885.
Sievers, E., G. d. G. P. =Phonetik in Paul's Grundriss, vol. i.
2nd ed.
„ „ G. d. P.=GrundzUgeder Phonetik. (4th ed. 1893.)
Skeat, W. W., Etym. Diet = Etymological Dictionary of the

English Language. 2nd ed. 1884.

ABBREVIATIONS xxxix

Skeat, W. W., Principles of English Etymology. First Series.

The Native Element. 1887. Now in 2nd ed.
Skutsch, F., Forschungen [zur iateinischen Grammatik und

Metrik]. I. Band. 1892.
Solmsen, F., Studien [znr Iateinischen Lautgeschichte]. 1894.
Stolz' or Stolz, Lat. Gr. = Lateinische Grammatik (Laut- nnd

Formenlehre) von Fr. S. 3rd ed. 1900. (lu Iwan yon

Miiller's Handbach der klassischen Altertums - Wissen-

schaft.)
Stolz, Hist[oTi8che] Gram[matik] der Lateinisohen Sprache. 2

parts. Lantlehre, 1894. Stammbildnngslehre, 1895.
Streitberg, W., Urgermanische Grammatik. 1896.
Sweet, H., Handbook [of Phonetics]. 1876.

„ ,, H. of E. S. = History of English Sounds. (2nd ed.

1888.)
Techmer's Zeitschrifb= Internationale Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine

Sprachwissenschaft begriindet und herausgegeben von F.

Techmer. 1884 — . (5 vols., discontinued.)
Torp, Den Grsske Nominalfiexion sammenlignende fremstillet i

sine Hovedtraek af Dr. Alf Torp. 1890.
Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Asso-
ciation. Quoted by year.
U.D.=Die unteritalischen Dialekte von Theodor Mommsen.

1860.
Umbrica, interpretatus est F. Buecheler. 1883.
Yerhandlungen d[er] Y[ersammlung] d[eutscher] Phil[ologen].

(In 49th year.)
Wackemagel, J., Altindische Grammatik. I. Lautlehre. 1896.

„ ,, Vermischte Beitrage zur griechischen Sprach-

knnde. Programm. 1897.
Wharton, £. K, Some Greek Etymologies = Transactions of the

Philological Society, 1891—4, pp. 329 ff.
Whitney,- W. D., Skt. Gr.= Sanskrit Grammar, by W. D. W.

2nd ed. 1889.
Zvetaieff = Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris dialecticae ; composuit

loh. Z. 1886.

xl COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY

SOME OTHER COMMON ABBREVIATIONS

Eng. = English.

Indo-G. ^

O.E. = Old English.

or

- =Indo-Germanic.

M.E. = Middle English.

Idg. .

Gk)th.= Gothic.

Lat

= Latin.

Gk. = Greek.

Lith.

= Lithuanian.

Ic. = Icelandic.

Osc.

= Oscan.

N. = Norse.

Skt.

= Sanskrit.

U.

= Umbrian.

. An asterisk prefixed to a form indicates that the form is not
actually found, but must be presupposed to account for esdsting
forms : thus Greek Furr&t, Lat. visua presuppose a form *)^idt6'S,
from which both are descended.

ADDENDA

Page 448, n. 2. For a careful discussion of these and cognate
forms, see an article by Chadwick entitled ** Ablaut Problems
in the Idg. Verb," in LF. xi. pp. 146 ff.

Page 622, line 9. Prof. Hempl (Transaciiana of the American
Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff. } contends that
in Italy the replacing of ^ (in the Ghalcidian alphabet
written X not Z) by G was occasioned through a confusion in
the soript, as was also that of original E (IC) by C (7). In
early inscriptions where the forms are often angular instead
of rounded all three shade into one another.

Page 676, line 4. Brugmann {LF, xi. pp. 109 ff.) connects with
Lat dccens and decentarius found explained in glosses as
promptus, paraiiiSf ingeniosus, a word with which Goetz
joins dicerUarius explained as dictor causarum vel iudex.

PABT I

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

I. What is Philology ?

I. It is an almost invariable rule in the growth
of scientific knowledge that when a inexactnaw of
mass of facts large enough to form a *^«>»»°»«-
separate science has been collected, an old name is
at first extended to cover this sum of new information.
Thus Geology, which denotes properly the science
dealing with the earth, was formerly used (and is
still so used in popular acceptation) to include also
the body of knowledge dealing with the remains
of extinct animals found in rocks. But when this
became a very important branch of study a new
name — Palaeontology — was invented to distinguish
it from Geology properly so called.

2. The same holds true of that body of know-
ledge with which this book proposes to deal.
When the sum of facts dealing with language and
languages was comparatively small and the study
novel, the term Philology, previously used in a
somewhat different signification, was extended to
cover this branch of research.

The meaning of the word in former times was,
and its most common meaning still is, the study

4 COMPARA TIVE PHILOLOG Y § 2

of a language looked at from the literary point o
view. In Germany the word PhUologie meais
only the body of knowledge dealing with t'iC
literary side of a language as an expression of die
spirit and character of a nation, and consequently
the department dealing with language merely as
language forms but a subordinate part of this
wider science. But in England the study of
language as such has developed so largely in
comparison with the wider science of Philology
under which it used to rank, that it has usurped
for itself the name of "Comparative Philology,"
and in recent years of "Philology" without any
limitation. This is justifiable by the derivation
of the word, which only denotes vaguely all that
deals with words ; but for the sake of definiteness
it is better to use some term not so open to the
charge of ambiguity. " Comparative Philology "
is an unfortunate title,^ for, looking at the original
application of the word, it ought to mean the
comparative study of the literature of different
countries, whereas it is always employed to denote
merely the comparative study of sounds and words
as elements of language. The actual usage of the
word is thus at variance with the original meaning,
for many languages, such as the Gipsy, the Lithuanian,
and various others spoken by semi- civilised or
barbarous peoples, have no literature, but are
notwithstanding of the greatest interest and im-
portance to the student of language.^

* Cp. Whitney in Encyclopcedia Britannica^ s.v. Philology.
^ F. Miiller, Grundriss der Sprachwissmxhaft, p. 4.

§6 OTHER NAMES FOR THE SCIENCE 5

3. Hence various other names for the science
have been proposed, such as Compara- other names
tive Grammar and the Science of ■"KRe"***'-
Language. The latter is the wider and the better
term ; Comparative Grammar is more properly
applicable to the study of a group of languages
closely related to one another, such as the Indo-
Grermanic group or the Semitic group.

4. Philology, therefore, if we may use this term
to denote the Science of Languafi^e, deals

.,- „ . , ? , Scope of PhU-

With all the phenomena of speech — oiogy in this

with the production of the sounds which
compose it, with their combinations into syllables,
with the union of these syllables in words, and with
the putting of words together into sentences. In
its widest sense it includes also the important but
abstruse question of the origin of language, of
articulate utterance, a characteristic so remarkable
that Aristotle fixed upon it as the test of distinction
between man and brute ; \oyov Bi jjlovov avOpfoiro^
e)^€t T&v ^(ocjv . . . o Sk \oyo<; iirl t& Sfj/kovv iari to
av^jLi^pov Kal TO jSXafiepov, &<tt€ koX to SiKaiov koI
TO aBiKov}

5. But the number of languages on the earth is
so enormous that it is a task far too
great for any single man to thoroughly studying Phii-
master all, or even a large part of them.
Hence the principles of the science must be studied in
connexion with a few languages which are taken as
types of the great body of languages. As the science
sprang from the study of the classical languages,

1 PolUics, i. 2, 1253 a.

6 COMPARA TIVE PHILOLOGY § 6

and as these languages have had a very important
influence on the development of English thought
and of the English tongue, and are moreover
members of the same great group of languages to
which English belongs, we naturally turn to them
in the first place when we begin the study. Prob-
ably the great majority of philologists begin with
Latin and Greek, but no one can advance far in
the study till he has made himself master of other
languages which throw a flood of light on the
problems which lie before the student of language.
To clear up many diflSculties, not only in
Greek or Latin but also in English, a know-
ledge of Sanskrit forms is indispensable ; to
settle the character and position of the original
accent of words it is necessary to study the early
history of the Germanic ^ languages, the family to
which English belongs; some Slavonic dialects
again preserve features long effaced in all other
Indo- Germanic tongues ; in short, there is no
language and no dialect, however remote, which
belongs to the Indo -Germanic family that may
not throw light upon some important branch of
the study of these languages. For other questions,
again, some knowledge of languages which are
formed on dififerent principles and belong to diflferent
families is necessary : nothing elucidates better the
nature of inflexion than a comparison of an Indo-
Germanic tongue with Chinese on the one hand
and with Turkish on the other. The beginner
must not suppose that the philologist knows all
1 To this branch the name Teatonic is sometimes applied.

§6 INDOGERMANIC LANGUAGES 7

or even many of these languages so far as to be
able to read them fluently : in most cases his
information is supplied by the grammar and the
dictionary alone; but on each language or group
of languages there are specialists at work who store
up results available for the student of languages in
general.

n. What is an Indo-Germanic Language ?

6. In the last chapter it was mentioned that
English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit i„do- Germanic,
belonged to the same family of languages. Buro^n.^i^o'
This family is known at present as the ^®^'**^-
Indo-Germanic. In older books other names for
it will be found, such as Aryan or Indo-European,
sometimes Indo-Keltic. The first of these words
is derived from Sanskrit, and the objection to the
use of it in this meaning is that it more appropri-
ately denotes ^ the group formed by the Iranian and
Indian dialects of the family, which are very closely
connected. Against "Indo-European" it is urged
that some languages, such as Armenian, which exist
neither in India nor in Europe are excluded, and
that priTna facie the term suggests that all Indian
and all European languages belong to this family.
This is far from being the case; in. ludia the
dialects belonging to this family are mostly confined
to the broad belt across the north of the Peninsula
from the Indus to the Ganges, while the Deccan and

^ Whitney, Life and Growth of Lafiguagej p. 180.

8 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES §6

the south generally are occupied by people of differ-
ent races who speak languages of quite another
origin. In Europe also, on the other hand, there
are many languages which do not belong to this
family, such as the Turkish, the Hungarian, the
Basque, the Lapp, and the Finnish.

7. The term " Indo-Germanic " is an attempt to
denote the family by the names of those members
of it which form the extreme links of a chain
stretching from the North-East of India to the
West of Europe. As the name was applied to this
family of languages before it was finally ascertained
that Keltic also belonged to the same family, it has
been proposed to use Indo-Keltic instead. But
this is not necessary, for though the Kelts have
gradually been driven into the furthest corners of
the West of Europe by the inroads of the Germanic
tribes, yet Iceland, the most westerly land belonging
to the European continent, has been for a thousand
years a settlement of a Germanic people.

8. A great advance in knowledge was rendered
All idg. Ian- possible by the discovery of Sanskrit
Srof o^^ori: On its introduction to Europe by Eng-
ginaiunguage. ^3^ gcholars like Sir William Jones,
Colebrooke, and others, the conception was gained
of a family of languages not derived from one
another but all returning like gradually converging
lines to one centre point, to one mother language —
the original Indo-Germanic. From that felicitous
conception the whole of the modem science of
Language may be said to have sprung. The simi-
larity of Sanskrit to the classical languages and its

§9 HAVE ALL THE SAME ORIGIN 9

wide geographical separation from th«m made
scholars see that old notions such as that Latin was
derived from a dialect of Greek must be given up.
Men now realised clearly that the relation between
Greek and Latin was not that of mother and
daughter but of sisters. This led to eager investi-
gation for the purpose of determining what other
languages belonged to the same family. In some
cases the investigation has been far from easy,
languages having occasionally lost the distinguish-
ing characteristics which would clearly mark them
out as members of the family. In some cases too
it has been found very hard to decide whether an
individual dialect was to be treated merely as a
local variety of another dialect or whether it
deserved to be classed as a separate language.

9. The distinguishing marks which would be
looked for are very different in these how languaffes
two cases. In separating two Ian- ^Tsh^fromone
guages the difficulty is often occasioned S^^EJgiSh^Sf
by the mixture of words borrowed ^^l^l^ki"
from a neighbouring or a conquering ^^^^
nation, which have become at last so large a part of
the vocabulary as to obscure the original character
of the languaga Thus in the English language a
very large number of words in ordinary use are
not of Germanic origin. A very large part of
any English dictionary is taken up by words of
Latin or Greek derivation which have been imported
into English at different times and for different
reasons. Some were borrowed in Anglo-Saxon
times ; these were more especially words connected

10 CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE §9

with Christiaiiity and the Christian Church, as
bisJiop, priest, and many others. A very large
number were introduced because the country came
for a time under the political control of the Nor-
mans ; the words introduced at this time have not
come directly from Latin but indirectly through
the medium of the French. The influence here
was much greater than in the previous case. The
Anglo-Saxons borrowed words to express ideas
which were new to them. Instead of translating
€7rt<r#co7ro9, as they might have done, by " overseer,"
they preferred in this special and technical use to
keep the foreign term for the ofl&ce. These new
words once introduced became part and parcel of
the language and changed with its changes, hence
the Greek iirlaKoiro^ is metamorphosed in time
into the modern English bishop. But the importa-
tions from Norman French afiected the most
ordinary things of common life, and hence it is
that we use good Germanic words for common
animals as cow, steer, sheep, swine, while for the
flesh of these animals we employ words of French,
i.e, Latin, origin, heef, mtUton, pork, A third period
of importation was after the Eenaissance, when men
in their enthusiasm for the new learning thought
to improve their Saxon tongue by engrafting multi-
tudes of classical words upon it. Hence we some-
times have — (1) the same word appearing under two
diflTerent forms, one being borrowed earlier than the
other, as in the case of priest and presbyter, both
through Latin presbyter from wpeafivrepo^ ; or (2)
besides difierence in the time of borrowing, one of

§10 OBSCURED BY BORROWED WORDS 11

the forms comes through another language, as
blame and Uaspheme. Both of these go back to
pKaa-ifyrffieZv through Latin hlasphemare, but the
former has also passed through France on its way
from Latium to England. The same is true of
double forms like surface and superficies, frail and
fragile, and a great many more.^ In the later
period, when the literary sense had been awakened
to the origin of many of these words, old importa-
tions were furbished up to look like new by giving
them a more classical spelling than they had
previously had This has happened in the case
of words like favlt and dovht, earlier faut and
dxmte,

lo. But though so many words have been
borrowed by English, no one doubts that it is a
Germanic language, for (1) such inflexions as are
still left to it are essentially Germanic, and (2)
though the majority of the words in our diction-
aries are Latin and Greek, a very large number of
them are not in everyday use, and in ordinary
conversation words of Latin and Greek origin are
in a minority. It has been said that the common
rustic uses as a rule scarcely more than 300 words ;
and with a few exceptions, such as vm, feud, and
some others, these 300 words are all of Germanic
origiiL The statement, however, is not true; the

^ Owing to the diflScolty which exists in English of forming
new compound words, we still fall back npon the classical languages
for new terms for scientific discoveries, in most cases without much
regard to the proper rules for the formation of such compounds.
From the classical point of view, words like telegram, telephone,
photograph are absolute barbarisms.

12 DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF §10 —

vocabulary of the rustic about common things may
be small, but he has a very large supply of techni-
cal terms — mostly too of Germanic origin — for his
own industry. Of these a great number are always
purely local and would be quite unintelligible to the
ordinary Englishman.

The most common borrowed words are naturally
substantives — names of wares, implements, eta — and
occasionally the verbs which express their function.
Yet wse and fa/it do not come under this class, nor
does take, a verb which has been borrowed from the
Danish invaders of the Anglo-Saxon period and
which has completely ejected the Middle English
words fangen (Old English f6n\ and nimm (O.E
niman) from the literary language, though " stow'n
fangs," i.e, " stolen goods," is a phrase still known in
Scotland, and Byrom's poem of the Nimmers shows
that "let's nim a horse " was still intelligible in some
dialect last century and may be even now.

1 1. But in some languages the history of borrow-
ing and the relations of the neighbouring
Albanian only tongucs are not SO clcar as they are in

recently distin- ^ ^. - , "^ ,

guished as sepa- English I heucc some tongues, such as

rat6 languagos. o ' t»

the Armenian and the Albanian, are
only even now asserting their right to a position
in the Indo - Germanic family not as subordinate
dialects but as independent languages. In the
case of Albanian the problem has been compli-
cated by the great variety of languages which
have encroached upon its territory : Slavonic,
Turkish, Greek, Latin have all foisted some words
into it.

§13 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES 13

12. Hard, however, as the problem of dis-
tinguishing nearly related languages is, criteria of wg.
it is far surpassed in difiBculty by that i*°8"*8e«-
of deciding whether a language is Indo-Germanic
or not. What criteria can be laid down to guide
the philologist in this investigation ?

In order to assign a language to the Indo-
Grermanic family several things must be proved :

(1) That the word-bases or roots of this language
are prevailingly the same as those which appear in
other Indo-Germanic languages; (2) that the
manner in which nouns and verbs are formed from
these bases is that which appears in other Indo-
Germanic languages; (3) that the changes which
words undergo to express various relations within
the sentence are of the same kind as in other
Indo-Germanic languages.

Of these three (1) is the only condition which
is indispensable ; (2) and (3) may be so obscured
as practically to disappear. In English the dis-
tinction between noun and verb, and between both
of these and roots, has in many cases disappeared.
Noun inflexion is now confined to a limited number
of possessive and plural forms; verb inflexion
remains only in a very mutilated condition.

13. A fairly certain inference may be drawn
from the identity of the pronouns and importance of
the numerals. Pronouns are so es- SSSenSI as erf-
sential to the life of a language that ^^^

they are not likely to be given up in favour of
others from a foreign source. But even these are
not always certain authority for the connexions of

14 CHANGES IN SOUNDS § 13

a language. Perhaps the question does not ^ arise
in the case of the Indo-Germanic languages, but
in another family of languages — the Semitic — it
presents a great difficulty. The Coptic and the
Semitic family are similar in their pronouns and
numerals and in little else.^

14. In order that the word-bases of a language
may be shown to be identical with

Wortl-basM may " t-i^ .1

have different thosc of the Other Indo-Gcrmanic lan-

soonds in differ- . .

ent languages, guagcs it IS uot uocessary that the sounds

but the change ° , . , . xi 1 111 . ,

of sound must which appear m them should be the
same. The h in the English bear cor-
responds to the / in the Latin fero, the <f> in the
Greek <f>ipa)f and the bh in the Sanskrit bhdrdmi;
the k in the English IcTuyu) corresponds to the g in
the Latin (g)no8co, the 7 in the Greek yi-yim-a-KO),
the S in the Lithuanian zinau, and the j in the
Sanskrit jd-nd-mi ; but all philologists are agreed
that bt /, <^, and bh in the one case, and k, g, y, £, j
in the other, represent severally but one original
sound — bh in the former and a ^-sound in the
latter. And the representation of the original
sound by the corresponding sound of the derived
language is, with some intelligible exceptions,
invariable. Thus all that is wanted is that some
system be observable in the interchange of sounds
among the connected languages. If we found that
no such system existed, that in the same circum-

^ According to Guatav Meyer, however {Essays und Studien,
p. 63), it is probable that Albanian has borrowed its article and
some important pronoans from Latin.

' Renan, Histoirs de$ Lanffues S^mitiques, pp. 84, 85.

-^ 16 THE ARYAN GROUP 16

stances 0 in Greek was represented in English
sometimes by m, sometimes by a;, sometimes by r,
and occasionally disappeared altogether, we should
have to conclude (1) that in these cases the
philologists were connecting words together which
ought not to be connected ; and (2) if this prevailed
also with all sounds except in a few words which
had the same meaning, we might be sure that
Greek and English had no original connexion, and
that such traces of inflexion as appear in English
must have been borrowed from some Indo-Germanic
language with which it had at some period come
into very close contact. At the same time, we
should have to admit that the borrowing of inflexion
was of very rare occurrence.

1 5. Philologists proceeding upon these principles
have identified the following languages
as belonging to the Indo-Germamc the wg. lan-
family : —

(L) The Aryan Group.

This includes (1) Sanskrit, the ancient language
spoken by the Indo-Germanic invaders of the
Punjab. The earliest literature in it is the Vedas,
the oldest writings preserved to us in any Indo-
Germanic language. The Vedas date from about
1500 B.C., and stand in somewhat the same relation
to the classical language as Homer does to classical
Greek. Sanskrit as a spoken language had died
out before the Christian era ; it was succeeded by
dialects derived from itself called Prakrit and Pali,
which have also long been extinct in their original
form and are now represented by Hindi and other

16 IRANIAN, ARMENIAN § l6

modern dialects. The Gipsy dialect is a degraded
branch of this family which has wandered to the West.

(2) The Iranian dialects, — Zend, the language
of the sacred books of the ancient Persians and the
modern Parsis (which, however, also show variety
of dialect), and Old Persian, the language of the
cuneiform inscriptions which record the doings of
the ancient Persian monarchs.

The Zend sacred books are supposed to belong
to various periods between 1100 b.c. and 600 b.c. ;
of the Persian inscriptions the oldest date from
King Darius, 520 b.c.^

This group is characterised by having lost the
original distinction between a, e, and o, all of which
it represents by a, though the sound was probably
diflferent from the original a sound. In Zend later
changes appear in this a sound also.

(ii.) Armenian. This language, known from the
fifth century A.D., has only recently (1875) been
distinguished from the Iranian family. The
Armenians, according to Herodotus, were an off-
shoot from the ancient Phrygians, who were them-
selves a Thracian stock called Briges before they
migrated to Asia.^ A considerable number of

^ It is impossible at present to assign, even approximately,
certain dates to the earliest Vedic and Iranian literature.
Recently some scholars, on astronomical grounds, have assigned
the earliest hymns of the Veda to a period earlier than 3000 B.C.

* Herodotus vii 78. The oldest inscriptions known were
collected by Prof. W. M. Ramsay in the Journal of the Eoyal
Asiatic Society for 1883, those of the Roman period by the same
scholar in K,Z. 28, pp. 381 ff. For Phrygian and its relations
with other languages see ch. vii. of Eretschmer's Einleitung in
die Oeschichte der griechischen Spraehe (Qottingen, 1896).

§ 16 GREEK, ALBANIAN^ ITALIC 17

inscriptions in the Phrygian language still exist,
some of the third to the fifth century A.D., others
perhaps nearly a thousand years earlier.

(iiL) Greek. This language is known to us by
an extensive literature and by numerous inscriptions
which help us to distinguish clearly the character-
istics of the numerous dialects into which the
language was divided. An account of the
leading dialects of Greek will be found in the
Appendix (§§610 fif.).

(iv.) Albanian. This has no early literature
and has been but lately added as a separate member
to the Indo-Germanic family of languages.

(v.) Latin and the kindred Italic dialects, Oscan,
Umbrian, and various minor branches. In Latin,
besides the extensive and varied literature, there is
a large mass of inscriptions, rare in the early
period, exceedingly numerous under the Empire.
The history of Latin and the other Italic dialects
is extremely important and interesting for two
reasons:

(a) A strange parallelism is exhibited by
Oscan as compared with Latin, and by Welsh as
compared with Irish (see below), in the treatment
of guttural sounds. In Oscan and Welsh 'p
appears in many cases where qu or c occurs in
Latin and Irish.

(6) The second and much more important point
is that from Latin — not indeed in its literary
form as we find it in the great Boman writers, but
from the dialect of the common people — are
descended the various Eomance languages, French,

c

1 8 DIALECTS OF ITAL Y § 16

Italian, Provengal, Spanish, Portuguese, Boumanian,
Bbaeto-Bomanic.

These form as it were a subordinate parallel to
the history of the Indo-Germanic family of lan-
guages. Nearly as many separate and mutually
unintelligible dialects have sprung from Latin as
there are branches of the great Indo-Germanic
family, but in the former case we possess what is
for ever lost to us in the latter, the parent tongue
from which they spring. We have the original
Latin; we can never hope to have, except by
hypothetical restoration, the original Indo-G^rmanic

Besides Latin and its kindred dialects, other
languages were spoken in parts of ancient Italy:
in the south-east Messapian, a language apparently
akin to Albanian, and no doubt used by settlers
who had crossed from Ill3nricum to the opposite
shore, as in recent centuries a few Albanian colonies
have done ; in the north-east Venetian, the language
of the ancient Veneti, whose origin is not quite
certain ; in the north-west Ligurian, the language
probably of a section of the Iberian race (repre-
sented by the modern Basques), which most archaeo-
logists are now agreed occupied Western Europe
till they amalgamated with and adopted the lan-
guage of their Indo-Germanic conquerors, the
Gauls and Bomans. The district bounded east
and west by the Veneti and Ligures respectively
was held by Kelts. Lastly, the west of Italy,
north of the Tiber, was occupied by the Etruscans,
the origin of whose language is shrouded in mystery.
Though many thousands of inscriptions exist, and

§16 KELTIC DIALECTS 19

although recently an Etrascan book has been dis-
covered and published/ no one has yet succeeded
in identifying the language conclusively with any
known family of speech.

(vi) Keltia This includes (1) the old Gaulish
spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by
words preserved incidentally in Greek and Eoman
writers — ^proper names, names of plants, etc. — and
by a few inscriptions and coins.

(2) Welsh, with an extensive literature be-
ginning in the eleventh century.

(3) Cornish, extinct since the beginning of
the nineteenth century.

(4) Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn-
wall A.D. 400-600.

(5) Manx, still spoken in the north of the
island of Man, most closely allied with Scotch Gaelic.

(6) Irish, first in Ogam (Runic) inscriptions
of the sixth or seventh century a.d. ; next in
glosses of the eighth century, explaining words in
Latin MSS. ; there is a large literature in its later
stages known as Middle and Modem Irish.

(7) Scotch Gaelic, closely connected with the
Irish. Its earliest records — the charters of the
Book of Deer — date from the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.

These dialects fall into two great divisions, the
first four having certain points of similarity among
themselves which sharply distinguish them from the

^ By Krall in the Dtnknckrifien of the Vienna Academy in
1892. The book had been used as swathing for a nrnmmy now in
the mnseam at Agram.

1 8 DIALECTS OF ITAL Y § 16

Italian, Proven9al, Spanish, Portuguese, Boumanian,
Rhaeto-Bomanic.

These form as it were a subordinate parallel to
the history of the Indo-Germanic family of lan-
guages. Nearly as many separate and mutually
unintelligible dialects have sprung from Latin as
there are branches of the great Indo-Germanic
family, but in the former case we possess what is
for ever lost to us in the latter, the parent tongue
from which they spring. We have the original
Latin; we can never hope to have, except by
hypothetical restoration, the original Indo-Germanic.

Besides Latin and its kindred dialects, other
languages were spoken in parts of ancient Italy:
in the south-east Messapian, a language apparently
akin to Albanian, and no doubt used by settlers
who had crossed from lUyricum to the opposite
shore, as in recent centuries a few Albanian colonies
have done ; in the north-east Venetian, the language
of the ancient Veneti, whose origin is not quite
certain ; in the north-west Ligurian, the language
probably of a section of the Iberian race (repre-
sented by the modern Basques), which most archaeo-
logists are now agreed occupied Western Europe
till they amalgamated with and adopted the lan-
guage of their Indo-Germanic conquerors, the
Gauls and Bomans. The district bounded east
and west by the Veneti and Ligures respectively
was held by Kelts. Lastly, the west of Italy,
north of the Tiber, was occupied by the Etruscans,
the origin of whose language is shrouded in mystery.
Though many thousands of inscriptions exist, and

§ 16 KEL TIC DIALECTS 1 9

although recently an Etruscan book has been dis-
covered and published/ no one has yet succeeded
in identifying the language conclusively with any
known family of speech.

(vi.) Keltic This includes (1) the old Gaulish
spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by
words preserved incidentally in Greek and Eoman
writers — ^proper names, names of plants, etc. — and
by a few inscriptions and coins.

(2) Welsh, with an extensive literature be-
ginning in the eleventh century.

(3) Cornish, extinct since the beginning of
the nineteenth century.

(4) Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn-
wall A.D. 400-600.

(5) Manx, still spoken in the north of the
island of Man, most closely allied with Scotch Gaelic.

(6) Irish, first in Ogam (Runic) inscriptions
of the sixth or seventh century a.d. ; next in
glosses of the eighth century, explaining words in
Latin MSS. ; there is a large literature in its later
stages known as Middle and Modem Irish.

(7) Scotch Gaelic, closely connected with the
Irish. Its earliest records — the charters of the
Book of Deer — date from the eleventh and twelfth
centuries.

These dialects fall into two great divisions, the
first four having certain points of similarity among
themselves which sharply distinguish them from the

^ By Krall in the Denkachrifie^ of the Vienna Academy in
1892. The book had been used as swathing for a mammy now in
the mnseum at Agram.

20 GERMANIC DIALECTS § 16

last three.^ Scotch Gaelic is, indeed, only an oflf-
shoot from Irish, the Irish Scoiti having settled in
Argyle in the beginning of the sixth century A.D.,
and gradually overrun the rest of the country till
their political power, and as a natural consequence
their language, became predominant, but, in its turn,
succumbed to Northumbrian English. Similarly
the dialect of Man is probably derived from Scot-
land, the Bunic inscriptions in the island being in
Norse, the language of the Vikings who for a
considerable period held sway in Man and the
Hebrides.^

(viL) Germanic or Teutonic. This group is
divided into three great branches :

(1) Gothic, preserved in the fragments of the
West-Gothic version of the Bible, made by Bishop
Ulfilas in the fourth century of our era for his
people at that time settled on the northern bank
of the Danube.

(2) The Scandinavian branch, represented by
the Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish;
The Bunic inscriptions are the oldest remains of
this branch, and go back perhaps to the third or
fourth century a.d. The Gothic and Scandinavian

^ Some aathorities make three groups by separatiDg Gaulish
from Welsh, Cornish, and Breton.

' A relic of this domination survives in the title of the Bishop,
who is bishop of Sodor (i.e. South Islands as opposed to Orkney
and Shetland) and Man. What was the language of the Picts,
the earlier inhabitants of North Britain subdued by the Soots, is
not clear ; a priori it might be expected to be a dialect akin to
Welsh and Cornish. Tacitus, however {Agrieola, xi.), thought the
Caledonians of Germanic origin, but says nothing of their language.

§ 16 SLA VONIC DIALECTS 21

dialects are sometimes classed together as East
Germanic.

(3) The West Germanic dialects. In the
earliest period these are Anglo-Saxon (i«. Old
English), Frisian, Old Saxon or Low German, Old
High German, and Old Low Franconian, from which
spring Dutch and Flemish.

Of these dialects perhaps the oldest record is
the Old English poem of Btowvlf, which, in its
original form, may have been brought by the Saxon
invaders of England from their continental home.

(viii) The Letto-Slavonic group. As in the
case of the Aryan, the Italic and the Keltic groups,
this breaks up into two well-marked divisions :

(1) Slavonic proper. This includes a great
variety of dialects which fall into two divisions —
(a) the south-eastern, comprehending the old Bul-
garian in which the early Christian documents of
the Slavs were written down (the earliest date
from the ninth century), Bussian in all its varieties,
Servo-Croatian, and Slovenian (the Slavonic dialect
of Styria, Carinthia, Camiola, and part of Hungary);
(6) the Western, comprehending Bohemian, Polish,
Serbian or Wendish (spoken in a Slavonic district
lying south of Berlin and extending into Saxony),
and Polabish, formerly spoken in the valley of the
Elbe, but extinct since the beginning of the
eighteenth century.

(2) The Lettic or Lithuanian group, consisting
of three dialects — (a) Old Prussian, (J) Lettic, (c)
Lithuanian.

Old Prussian became extinct two centuries ago.

22 HOME AND CIVILISATION §16

Its only relics are a Catechism and a glossary, and
neither of the other dialects has any literature
properly so called. Lettic and Lithuanian are still
spoken in the frontier district between Prussia and
Russia, Lettic being the more northern of the two
dialects. They diflfer in accentuation, and the
forms of Lettic are more broken down than those
of Lithuanian.^

1 6. There is no doubt that these eight groups
of dialects go back to one original

Original home of , \ t. ...

the indo-Ger- language, and from a comparison of

the forms in these various languages
we are able to ascertain what the original form in
the primitive Indo- Germanic language may have
been. Unfortunately we cannot bring our induc-
tion to the test by comparing the hypothetical
with the genuine form, for not one word of this
original tongue has come down to us. Our know-
ledge of the original home of the people who spoke
this language and of its civilisation is equally
meagre. Many have been the ingenious attempts
of scholars to break through the darkness which
encircles this part of the history of our race, and
great would be the importance of their results not
only for Philology but for Anthropology, had these
attempts the slightest chance of success. Formerly,
partly from a desire to follow the Biblical narrative,
partly from a belief that the Aryan members of
the family represented in all respects the most
primitive form of the Indo-Germanic tongue pre-

^ For fuller details vrith regard to these languages cp. Sayce,
IfUrodudum to the Science of Language ', vol. ii. pp. 65 ff.

§ 17 OF THE ORIGINAL INDO-GERMANS 23

served to us, the original seat of the primitive
people was placed in the uplands of Central Asia.
Recent speculation has tended to remove it to the
borders of Europe and Asia or even to the north
of Europe.

1 7. From a study and comparison of the words
used for common things by the various

- 1 T 1 /^ . , CiviUtoUon of

branches of the Indo- Germanic stock, the primitive

, - , _ Indo-Gennans.

attempts have also been made to ascer-
tain the height which the primitive civilisation had
reached. But here success is almost as hard of
attainment, for it is not enough to show that some
or all of the Indo-Germanic peoples used a certain
name for some object, as a metal, a weapon, etc.
To ascertain the character of the primitive civilisation
it must be shown that the word means the same
thing in all these languages, or, at all events,
changes from the supposed original meaning must
be proved by a chain of evidence, of which in many
cases important links are now and probably will
ever be wanting. That the primitive Indo-
Germanic people knew the most ordinary domestic
animals, the cow, the sheep, the pig, is certain;
the trees which they knew and the metals are
very uncertain. For people when they change their
abodes tend to apply the old names to new things,
and we have no means of determining how far
one branch of the family may have borrowed
names from another which was at some prehistoric
time its neighbour. Perhaps no peoples have
wandered so much to and fro upon the face of
the earth as the Indo-Germans ; at the dawn of

24 MUTUAL RELATIONS OF §17

the historic period we find the Aryan, the Slavonic,
the Germanic, the Keltic races in a state of active
migration; their wanderings in the thousands of
years previous to that period who shall tell ?

1 8. Another subject on which there has been

much learned discussion in recent years is the

degree of inter - connexion among the Indo-

Grermanic languages. Various ingenious

Connexion be- ^, . , J^ j j i . i.

tween idg. Ian- thcories havc bceu propounded which
are named after some analogical feature
in their structure, as the " genealogical-tree " theory
of Schleicher, the " wave theory " of Johannes
Schmidt, etc. Attempts have also been made to
draw a clear division between the European and
the Asiatic branches of the family on the ground
that the European languages show a, e, o, where
the Asiatic members show only a. But this
difference was not in existence from the beginning,
for certain changes in the guttural consonants of
the Aryan branch have been shown to be caused
by an original «-sound which has now disappeared.
The family does, however, fall into two sections
according to their treatment of the palatal consonants
(§ 68), one section representing the original sound
by a stop or mute consonant, the other by a spirant
As the most characteristic sound is found in the
word for "hundred," the two sections are named
the centum and the ^tm section respectively.
To the centum section belong Greek (e-Karov),
Latin (centum), Keltic (Old Irish at), Germanic
(English hund-red). To the satem section belong
Aryan (Skt. catdm, Zend scUem) and Letto-Slavonic

§18 THE JNDChGERMANIC LANGUAGES 25

(Lithuanian SZm^oa). Armenian and Albanian also
belong to this section. There are striking similarities
between various members of the family in individual
points, as between the Italic and Lettic families in
the tendency to change the form of the original
declension of consonant stems into -t-stems, between
Oreek and Sanskrit in the treatment of certain nasal
sounds and the formation of some verb stems, between
the Aryan and the Letto-Slavonic branches in the
treatment of guttural sounds, between the Germanic
and the Slavonic in the insertion of t between z and
r, as in English stream^ Old Bulgarian o-drovii
"island."^ Greek, the Italic, and some Keltic
dialects agree in representing a class of original
^-sounds by b, fiov^;, bos. Greek and Latin agree
in changing an original m into n before ^-sounds,
as in fiaivto, venio (§ 140), and in both, the inflexion
of the genitive plural of a-stems in pronouns has
infected d-stems in nouns, rdcov, is-tdrum (originally
tds&m), causing Oedtav, dedrum to be formed. Again
some forms of the verb seem to have been invented
by both Greek and Latin at a late period, as 3rd pi.
imperative X^oin-G) (Doric), legunio, which is no part
of the original inflexion of the verb.

But these similarities are not great enough to show
closer connexion between any two members of the
family than any other two. Such changes of original
forms often happen in languages quite independently.
Thus some peculiarities of the Lettic dialects and
the Romance languages have exact parallels in the

^ Bnigmann, Techmer*8 Zeitachrift, i. p. 234 ; Eretschmer,
Eiideitung, oh. iv.

26 ANAL YSIS OF § 18

dialects descended from Sanskrit. Not in Greek
and Latin only does the pronominal inflexion affect
the noun; exact parallels to the phenomenon are
to be found in Pali, and in Gothic other cases of
the noun are affected than those which suffer in the
classical languages.

1 9. The only members of the family which show
itauc and Keltic ^^^^ important coincidences as to make

dialects. £j. prQ^able that they stand in closer
connexion with one another than with other members
of the family are the Italic and the Keltic dialects.
In both groups some branches show p representing
an original strongly guttural k, others show c or qu.
In both groups the passive is formed in the same
manner/ and a secondary imperfect and future appear
in both from derivative verbs — the Latin -ham and
-ho forms. There are some minor resemblances, but
the similarities in the verb are so remarkable as
almost to prove a more than ordinarily close con-
nexion between the languages, especially when
we consider that nowhere else can such passive and
imperfect and future forms be proved to exist.

nL How do Indo-Oermanic Langnafifes differ
from other Langfuages ?

20. Let us take some common word which
Lat tquM and app^ars in a considerable number of
1? othCT^idg' Indo-Germanic languages and compare
unguages. ^^ varfous forms which it assumes.

^ Zimmer (K.Z. 30, p. 240) considers this identity of form has
another explanation.

§20 INDO-GERMANIC WORD- FORMS 27

(1) Skt <ifl^

(2) Gk. Xmro^ (dialectic Xkko^).

(3) Lat eqwoz (earlier form of equui),

(4) (a) 0. Irish ech. (b) Welsh ep, eh

(5) Goth. aihvHi'tundi (thom-bush, lit." "horse-

thorn " ^). 0. Sax. ehu. 0. English eoh.

(6) lith. aszvd (mare. The masc. aszvas is

extinct *).
From Sanskrit^ Latin, Gothic, and Lithuanian it
is easy to see that the word may be divided into
two syllables, df-vas, eq-uos, aih-iva, asz-vA. Now
we know from a long series of observations made
upon these languages that the first part of these
words, though now different in each, was in all
originally the same. Every schoolboy also knows
that in this class of wordSj whether we call them
-o-stems or nouns of the second declension, s is the
sign of the nominative in all masculine forms ; -s

^ For the formation cp. Pov-Xi-fda, poO-Pptams, English Jun'se-
laughy hone-play,

' For the snryival of the fern, and the loss of the masc. form
cp. English mane =:0.E. mere fem. to mearhy horse, preserved only
in the word marshal which English borrowed through Old French
maresehal from the Low Latin mariacaicue of the Holy Roman
Empire, itself borrowed from O.H.O. mara-ecalhy a derivative
from marah and aeaXh^ Qothio ekaUcs ''servant." In French the
word has still the meaning of '' farrier." The Teutons were great
lovers of horses ; the legendary leaders of the Saxon invasion —
Hengist and Horsa — were both named from the animal. O.E.
htngest we have lost (German keeps it as kengst); O.E. horSf
O.H.6. hro$, modem German roes we have retained, and this has
driven out m£arh. In German, p/erd ( = Low Latin paraveredus^
Old French pal^reie, Eng. palfrey) has taken the place of roes as
the common word. In Lithuanian ar-i(:/^5= plough -beast (from
the same root as Lat. ar-are, Eng. earing) has driven out *aszvaa.

28 JNDO-GERMANIC SUFFIXES % 20

at the end of the word therefore we may mark ofif
by itself, as a sign for a special purposa

21, Now compare with eqvLoz another word,
Lat vidw» and ^^ vidiLos. Taking the languages in
ittiS^id^."*"?*!!! the same order we find a result of the
*^'*****- same kind.

(1) Skt. vidhdvas.

(2) Gk. ^t'^€09 (i.e. vFiOeFo^).

(3) Lat. viduos (viduus adj., vidtui subst).

(4) (a) 0. Ir. fedb, (b) Welsh gii>eddw.

(5) Goth. widuwO (fem. -on-stem).

(6) 0. Bulg. vidova (also feminine).^

22. From the comparison we see that in these
words there is, besides the nominative

Nominative suf-

fix, rtem^ufflx, suffix, another separable part, which
appears in the classical languages in the
form of -Fo- or -uo-. This is called the nominal-,
formative-, or stem -suffix, i.e. the sufl&x by the
addition of which the noun stem is formed from
the still more primitive portion now left behind.
This primitive portion is called the root.
Division of «m«« 23. Thus equos and vidiws may be

and vidtua Into ^^virlflH infxi

their component Ul viaea inW)

p*"^- (1) .$, nominative case suffix.

(2) 'VO' or -W0-, noun-stem suffix.

(3) eq- or ec-, and vid +-, root.

The sign + is put after vid because, as most of
the languages show, there is another sound between
the first syllable and the suffix -w-, which possibly

^ Delbriick {Die indogermaniachen Verwandtae?iaftsnamen, pp.
64 ff.) oonsiders the feminine forms of this stem to be the older,
but in any ease the formation of the suffix is the same.

§ 24 INDO-GERMANIC ROOTS 29

is a sign that these fonns come not directly from
the root but from a verb stem.^

24. A root never appears by itself in an Indo-
Germanic language ; that is to say, it peflnition of a
has no independent existence. A root wSSd^ com? to
is a conventional term used by gram- uikaSt'hSS^^'
marians to mean that part of the word *^^^
which is left when everything formative is stripped oflF.

The word root when so used is in itself a
metaphor; and as all Indo- Germanic languages
spring from one original or root language now lost,
we ought properly, when we speak of roots, to give
them in the form which we believe from a com-
parison of its various descendants they had in this
original tongue. But not infrequently we have
not material enough to form a satisfactory induction
of this kind ; therefore practical convenience justifies
us in speaking of the roots of an individual language,
t,g, of Greek roots and Latin roots. For when we
do so it is understood that we mean by the term
not something which exists by itself in the
language, but merely the fragment of the actual
word which is left behind when we have taken
away all formative elements. From this point of
view it is of small importance what the root itself
may have been or whether a long history lies
behind it also or not. In every language there is
a residuum with which the philologist is unable to
deal, because the forms seem to occur nowhere in
the Indo - Germanic area outside the particular
language with which he is dealing. Such words

^ Brugmann, Or, ii. § 64, p. 126.

30 SOME ROOT' WORDS % 24

may be whimsical formations as Lord Lytton's vril,
Reichenbach's o(2- force, which were attempts to
form absolutely new words,^ or they may be formed
from proper names, which themselves belong to a
different language.

Thus in the English phrase " to burke discussion,"
which is a coinage of the present century, the verb
has had a curious history. To elucidate the word
we need to know that in Edinburgh in 1827-28
there was an Irishman named Burke who supplied
the anatomical schools with the bodies of victims
whom he had suffocated. Hence comes the
metaphor to burke or stifle discussion. We need
to know further that Burke is not an Irish word
but only the Irish pronunciation of the name
De Burgh which was borne by certain Englishmen
who settled in Ireland some centuries ago. Tracing
the name further we find that the word came to
England from Normandy, and that though the
people who thus came from Normandy spoke
a dialect of French, still the name is of Germanic
origin. Germ, hirg, Eng. borough. From the
mediaeval Latin burgus, the Bomance languages
borrowed the word, Ital. borgo, French bourg, and it
appears even in Irish in the guise of borg " city."
In its earlier history it is connected with berg
"a hill." From the same root come the Keltic
word seen in the Scotch brae, and the Sanskrit
adjective brhdt, to say nothing of proper names like
the Germanic Burgundy and the Keltic BrigarUes.

^ For Van Helmont's ffos see now N,E,D, b.v, Thongh an in-
vented word it was suggested by the Greek x^^of*

§24 AND THEIR ORIGINS 31

But to all intents and purposes hhrke is a root in
English from which nouns and verbs may be
formed. It is only accident which has preserved
its early history in quite a di£ferent meaning.

Another word which looks at first sight of indis-
putably English origin is talh. Yet Professor
Skeat traces this through the Danish to the
Lithuanian, and says it is the only Lithuanian word
in English. It seems, however, to have come into
Lithuanian from Old Bulgarian, and is probably
ultimately Turkish. If the early history of the
Germanic and Slavonic dialects had been as com-
pletely lost as the history of the original Indo-
Germanic language or the early history of Latin,
we should have had to acquiesce in calling talk an
English word, which seemed isolated, unless we had
happened to guess that the German dolmetscher
(interpreter) was related to it This is really the
case, dolmetscher being also of Turkish origin ; the
Middle High German tolc (Dutch tolk) is the same
as the English word.^

^ It IB often said that talk (though no O.E. *tealcian is found)
stands in the same relation to tell as hark does to hear. This
seems doubtful — (i.) because it is very strange that the word for so
common an action should not, if native, be found in O.E. ; (ii.)
because in some of the dialects which have remained comparatively
pare from admixture, e,g. Lowland Scotch (both northern and
southern), it is even now not in use among the common people
except as a borrowed word employed in conversing (in English)
with their superiors. The earliest instance which Dr. Murray,
who has kindly shown me such slips for the N.E.D. as are already
sorted, is able at present (1809) to cite is from Seinte MarhereU
(about 1220 A.D.), and there is no other till we come to Cursor
JiwuU (1340 A.D.), where it is common. The word is not found

32 BORROWED WORDS AS ROOTS §24

One curious example of a British name passing
into another language may be given. In Lithuanian
the ordinary word for pedlar is sz&tas. If we did
not know that till last century most of the trade
of Lithuania was done by Scotchmen, we might
probably have some difficulty in recognising the
word as " Scot " (through the German Schotte).

Thus we see the meaning of a word may be
attached to it more or less by accident ; the word
may be imported from another language in a
meaning which it never had before in that language,
but once it has been imported it sticks fast, and
throws out a mass of new formations from itself.
In short, the word becomes a root in the language
into which it has been newly planted. The people
who now use it are unable to analyse it any further.
Still it may come to be treated as a native word and
analysed in the same manner as some series of
native words which it happens to resemble.

Sometimes in nouns this part which defies
analysis can be identified with a part similarly
left in verbs, at other times it cannot The eq-
which is left in eqiios we cannot certainly identify
with the root of any verb, except of course verbs
derived from the noun itself or from its derivatives,
as equUare,

25. Now let us take another common word,
Lat. mens and wMch appears in Latin as mens. The
to o?he?^1dg' genitive shows us that there was a t
lansoages. ^^ ^^iQ stcm, and Comparison of mentis

in Barbour, and oomparatively rarely in other Scotch Uteratnre
till after 1500, when English influence becomes more pronounced.

— § 26 NOUN AND VERB FORMS 33

with forms from other languages shows us that it
belongs to the class called -ti- stems. Thus —

(1) Skt maiis^ i,e, ma-ti-s,

(2) Gk. fidvTL^,

(3) Lat mens = orig. form ^men'ti-s.

(4) [0. Ir. er-miti'U, the latter part of which

= Lat. merUi'6 in form.]

(5) (a) Goth, ga-munds, (6) Old English

ge-mynd, Eng. mind.

(6) {a) Lith. at-mirUls, (6) 0. Bulg. pa-m^tK,
26. If we treat this in the same way as the pre-
vious words, and strip off first the s where

_ --^ , 1 I. 1 Coraponentparte

it occurs at the end as the mark of the ofin«n«. its re-

- ^, , nn ,' lated verb forma.

nommative, and then the noun sumx -ti-,
we have left a syllable beginning in all cases with m
and generally ending with n, though the intermediate
vowel appears in a great variety of forms. The
reason for this and for the variety of consonants
representing the q of eqvm will be explained later
(S 136, 157). At present it is suflftcient to
recognise the form the syllable takes in the different
languages, and to observe the similarity between
this and some verb forms.

(1) Skt mAn-yorte {e in Skt. is a diphthong,

here = ai), perf. participle passive ma-tds,

(2) Gk. fAcUv€Tcu = *ixaV'f^€-Tai (§ 83), fiA-^v-a,

plural fii'fia-fiev.

(3) Lat mon-eo, me-min-it = *m^-mon-it, re-

min-iscor = ^re-men-iscor.

(4) 0. Ir. do-moiniwr, pres. dep. = Lat pu/to in

meaning.

(5) Gk)th. ga-mrmran.

36 DEVELOPMENT OF WORD-FORMS % 29

peoples separated, but in other languages we see
the same thing still existing. In Chinese the root
is even now a word in itself; there is no stem, no
case or person suffix ; distinction in meaning turns
very largely upon the accent and the position in
the sentence. Turkish is still such a language as
Indo-Germanic was in its second stage when it put
two or more roots into close combination with one
another, but still knew the meaning of each, and
could consciously separate them. The only fainily
of languages which stands on the same footing as
the Indo- Germanic in point of formation is the
Semitic, the principal branches of which are the
Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Arabic ; and even the
Semitic languages differ from the Indo-Germanic in
a variety of ways.

30. It is worth observing that in some cases
Losaofinflex- Indo-Gcrmanic languages have lost the
.loM In English, greater part of their inflexion. Two of
them indeed have returned almost to the stage in
which we find Chinese.^ These are Persian and
English. If I pronounce the word "bear," you
cannot tell without context or reference to surround-
ing circumstances whether I mean a verb, a noun,
or an adjective (bare).

The only inflexion of substantives which remains
in English besides the plural is a possessive here

^ The best authorities regard Chinese as haying passed through
much the same stages as English. Thus the simplicity of the
Chinese word would not be primitive, but due to the loss of
inflexion. If so, it is curious that it seems to be gradually
regaining the power to make compounds, thus starting anew on
the path to complete inflexion.

— §31 VOWEL GRADATION 37

and there. Even with very common words the
possessive has died out of use. When Byron says,
" he sat him down at a pillar's base," we recognise
the possessive as a poetical licence, for in prose we
should certainly say, " at the base of a pillar." We
still retain some inflexions in the personal pronouns
and a few in the verb, to mark some of the persons,
the past tense, and participle. In English the past
tense is formed in two ways : either -ed is added
to the present form, as fill, fill-ed, or a variation
appears in the root vowel, as in sing, sang, sung;
come, came, came. These we call irregular verbs,
and we from time to time allow some of them to
pass over to the so-called " regular " conjugation and
to form a past tense with -ed. Hence the verbs
which form a past with -ed, though originally few,
have now become the great majority.^

31. If we look at a verb like BipKOfiaL we see
the same vowel -change taking place.

__ _ ° . , , Vowel gradation

We see by a comparison with other m roots and suf-
verbs, as <f>€pofjuu, rcfidofiac, etc., that
we can strip ofif a personal ending and a vowel
which appears as o in the 1st pers. sing, and the
1st and 3rd pi., but as 6 in Bipx-e-rac, BepK-e-tTde,
and in the old 2nd sing. BipKe{a')at. We remember
that there is the same change of stem vowel in
^€p-o-/i€v, i]>€p'€-T€, and that it is not confined to the
verb, for it appears in the nouns already so often
cited, and in many others. We have t7r7r-o-9 but
iirrr-e, equos but eque. So also yep-o^ but gen.
76^-€(cr)-o9, Lat gen-us (for -os), gen. gen-er-is, in
^ Skeat, Principles of English Etyvnology (First Series^), §§ 139 ff.

38 VOWEL GRADATION §31

which r comes in regularly in Latin for «. This
is what is called stem gradation, and will have to
be discussed more fully later on. But the
phenomenon is not confined to the stem suffix. It
appears also in the root, as we see when we compare
Bipte-o-futc with Be-Bopx-a and e-Bpax-ov. Forms
like the perfect stem appear also in nouns ; Bopx-ds,
" gazelle " has the same form of the root as Bi-Bopx-a,
We see also that forms with pa and \a — weak
forms as they are called — are not confined to aorists
only, but also appear in verbal adjectives which are
really old passive participles of past time. Thus
we have Bparo^ or Bapro^ from Bipto, with, on the
other hand, the noun BopcL In Latin the weak
forms have or or v/r, ol or vl, corresponding to the
Greek ap pa, oK Xa. Thus we have past participles
like vorsm = *vorttd'S, while the present verto has
the same vowel as if>€p(o and Bipxofuu, We may
observe, even within the perfect, changes of the
same kind, pA-p^va but fie-fui-p^ev, yi-yov-a but
yi-ya-fiev, in Homer. This is what corresponds in
Greek to the changes we see in the English sirig,
sang, sung. Nowadays we find that for the past
tense in such verbs sang or sung is used indi£fer-
ently. Perhaps in prose sang and rang are more
common, but no one objects to Scott when he
writes —

And, while his harp responsive rung,
'Twas thus the latest minstrel sung.

32. In the oldest English there was a genuine
difference between the forms, just as there is

— §34 ISOLATING LANGUAGES 39

between r^k-^ov-a and r^k-^a-yijev : mng represents
the old singular, sfwiig the old plural form. The
changes which we observe in iepK-o-^i, Se-BopK-a,
I'SpaK'Ov, in ye-yov-a and yi-ya-fiev, in sing, sang,
st^ng, are known by the general name of ablaut ^ or
vowel gradation. This term includes within it not
only vowel changes in the root part of the word,
but also those in the suffixes, for which there is
the special term " stem gradation," viz. such varieties
of form as were mentioned above — tmro^, tmre;
if^p-o-fiev, (f>kp'€'T€ ; ira-rp'&p, ira-Tpd-tri, va-rip-e^,
and many others. In no family of languages other
than the Indo-Germanic is there anything exactly
corresponding to this.

33. The various characteristics which have been
enumerated distinguish the Indo-Ger- Distinction be-

. 1 i. n « tween Idg. and

mamc languages from aU others. other languages.

(1) They are distinguished from the so-called
Isolating languages — the class to which isolating lan-
Chinese belongs — by (a) the changes ^"^^"
that appear in the root, which in the isolating
languages is unalterable; {h) by the possession of
various suflSxes of two kinds — (i.) those which go
to form the stems of the noun and verb respect-
ively, and (ii.) those which distinguish the differ-
ent cases in the noun and the different persons
in the verb; (c) by the clear distinction which
can thus be drawn between different parts of
speech.

34. (2) They are ' distinguished from the Ag-

* This, the Gennan name for the phenomenon, seems to be
now generally adopted in English books.

40 AGGLUTINATION IN LANGUAGE § 34

glutinative languages — the class to which Turkish
belongs — (a) by having suflBxes which

Distinction be- °,^^'^. ,° .1-

tween idg. and canuot be consciouslv separated from

agglutinative j 1 • t_ 1.

languages. Ex- the TOot or Stem and which have no
tinative forma- cxlstence as independent words. Thus
no Greek could divide oXkoi " at home "
into oIko "home" and i "at," though probably at
some prehistoric period in the history of the Indo-
G^rmanic languages such a division was quite
possible.^ The only traces, however, of the
possibility of this division are that in certain
Sanskrit stems the locative ending i may be
dropped at will in the early language, and that
before certain endings the laws of euphony prevail
which otherwise aflfect only the ends of words.*
There is one great advantage in division of this
kind : it permits of the plural having precisely the
same endings as the singular for the different cases,
the plural number being marked by an inserted
syllable. Every one who has ever thought about
language, or who has had long paradigms of forms
to learn, must have wished that for the dual he
might, by the help of some syllable which we may
represent by 2, have such forms as

Sing. Dual

Nom. egt^-s eytto-2-s

Ace. eqvAhm tqujo-^-m

^ The fact that ofirei, not ofKot, was probably the earliest Greek
form does not affect the matter in hand.

2 Whitney, Ski, Or, § 426 c, § 166. The locative suffix is
dropped also in oii% " always," as compared with a.Ui — •a/fe<r-t, and
in the Latin preposition jwn«s (§ 812).

§ 34 EXAMPLES OF AGGLUTINA TION 41

In the same way if we represent the plural by
the usual symbol for unknown quantity x we
might have

Sing. Plural

Nom. eqm-s equo-x-s

Ace. eguo-m equo-x-m

and so on for other cases.

This is precisely the principle of the Agglu-
tinative languages. Thus in the Turkish word ev
" house " we have cases as in olico^ or domus.

Sing.

Plural

Nom.

. ev = domus

ev'ler

Gen.

ev-in = domus

ev-ler-in

Dat

ev-e = domo

eV'ler-e

Ace.

ev'i = domum

eV'ler-i

Loc.

ev-de = domi

eV'ler-de

Abl.

eV'den = domo

ev-ler-den

The form of the inserted syllable shows a
process almost unknown in the Indo - Germanic
tongues. It depends on the character of the root
syllable whether the plural suflBx shall be -for- or
lar-, and there are similar and even more varied
changes for the case suffixes. Apart from this law
of vowel harmony there is only one declension, and
in theory there is no limit to the cases except the
limit of possible relations between objects, most of
which English has now to indicate by prepositions.
The tendency in all Indo-Germanic languages has
always been to lessen the number of cases and
replace them by prepositional phrases. In Greek

42 AGGLUTINATIVE LANGUAGES §34 —

and Latin, as we shall see, there are numerous
fragments still surviving of obsolete cases.

This process of adding and removing sufiEixes at
will, gives agglutinative languages a power unknown
to other tongues. Thus, to take another example
from Turkish, el is AaTirf, el-im my hand, el-im-de
in my hand, el-im-de-ki idng in my hand, from
which again a genitive can be formed, el-im-de-kin
= Tov [iv\ ifi'p x^^P^ ivro^. The same holds true
in verbs; "We should like not to be able to be
caused to love," can all be easily expressed in one
word.

Another result of this power of combination is
that these languages dispense with the inflexion of
the adjective altogether, unless when used substan-
tivally, like the Greek r^ KaXa, Finnish is the
only exception to this — it is supposed through the
influence of the Swedish.

Two other important points of difference may
be mentioned. (6) There are, properly speaking,
no compound words in these languages, while com-
pounds are extremely frequent in Indo-Germanic
languagea (c) There is in the lowest forms of
the class but little difference between noun and
verb. The ending for the first person is the
suflSx used in the noun to express "my." In
Hungarian hal-uvk is " our fish," var-unk " we
sow." In Turkish, which represents the highest
grade of this class of languages, and which some
writers declare to be an inflexional language, the
verb is formed mostly of a participle with the
personal pronouns appended for the 1st and 2nd

— § 36 SEMITIC LANGUAGES 43

persons, while the 3rd is the participle alone.
This is very like the Latin legimini (§ 28), and the
periphrastic future of classical Sanskrit ddtdsmi
** I shall give," really " I am a giver " ; while the
3rd sing, is data " giver," without a verb.^

35. (3) The distinguishing characteristics of
the two inflexional families — Indo- Distinction b©-
Germanic and Semitic— are — s^Sitic ^' iln"!

(a) The vowel gradation in Indo- *'**'***•
Germanic roots and stems ;

(b) The peculiar form of the Semitic roots.
Semitic roots, with very few exceptions, possess

three consonants; within the root, vowel- change
appears, but it is difierent in character from the
corresponding changes in Indo-Germanic. Words
are formed from roots mainly by varying according
to definite "measures" or schemes the vowels
attached to the consonants, partly by prefixes
(fragments of pronouns, e,g. ma — ** what " in ma-sjid
" place of worship," from a root gd), and to a very
small extent by suffixes. An interesting example
is the root dm of the verb salima *' he has been at
peace," whence come the well-known words scUdm
(salaam) and Islam, both infinitives of the verb
used as substantives, mvrslim (Moslem), properly
a participle, Sdlm, and Soleyman, With regard to
the "measures" the most notable point is the
distinction between active and stative vowels as it
appears in the verb, e.ff. Arabic sharuf (-a) "he
was exalted," sfiaraf (-a) " he overtopped, excelled " ;

^ Cp. with thia the Lithuanian yrd, an abstract substantiyes
exideniia, used for Srd sing, and plural of the substantive yerbw

44 SEMITIC LANGUAGES § 36

and in general this distinction runs through the
languages, e.^. malh will be " king " (possessor), milk
"possession." The last-mentioned change bears a
certain resemblance to the Indo-Germanic vowel
gradation.

As regards inflexion, the verb, which alone is
highly inflected, consists of noun and adjective
forms, combined with fragments of personal pro-
nouns prefixed or affixed. Compare with this the
Hungarian forms mentioned above.

The lack of the power of composition is compen-
sated by a very close syntactical arrangement, and
in the older forigis by simple apposition. The
Semitic relative is a particle which, being prefixed
to a clause, changes a demonstrative into a relative
clause. There are no proper tenses, but only
perfect and imperfect actions. The 3rd pers.
pronoun is generally used for a copula. You may
say " great John " for " John is great " ; if that is
ambiguous you say " great he John."

36. Each of these three great classes of lan-
miai^es which have now been mentioned

Wan there an ° V^ _ _ . , . , . . ,

originaiunKuace — ^thc Isolating, the Agglutinative, and

ftx)m which all , ^ n • ■• • CT^ . , . • 11

these femiiiea the Inflexional — mcludcs within it all
languages of that particular type, with-
out regard to any historical connexion between the
different members. So widely are members of the
same class separated that historical connexion is a
priori improbable, and we are left to suppose that the
development has been independent, but on the same
lines. The question of the origin of language, and
the equally abstruse question whether language

— § 37 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 45

spread from one single centre or from a number of
independent centres, lie beyond our range. Some
eminent scholars contend for a relation between
the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic tongues, some
even think they can trace an historical connexion
between Hebrew and Chinese. At present the
possibility of such connexion cannot be denied.
Mankind has a very long history behind it; the
footprints of early man have in most cases been
rudely obliterated by time, and the separation of
Chinaman and Semite, of Semite and Indo-German,
if it ever took place, dates from a period so remote
that independent development has removed, it
seems, most if not all traces of the original con-
nexion.^

IV. The Principles of Modem Philology

37. Most nations manifest an interest in the
etymology of their names, but as a rule
this interest is not according to know- tempts at ety-
ledge, though auguries are drawn from '"°°^*
the real or fancied derivation of a name. We
remember the name given by the child's grand-
father to the son of Laertes — 'OSucrcreu? —

irdKKolaLv ycLp iyw ye oSvao'dfievo^ to8' iKavto

(Od. xix. 407),

^ For fuller details of the differences between the different
families of languages see Misteli, Charaderistik der hauptsdch-
liehsUn Typen des Sprachhaues (Berlin, 1893).

46 THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE § 37 —

and in Aeschylus the good-omened name of Aris-
tides —

Qv f^hp Soxelv apurro^ aSX eXvai OiKec

and the terrible augury in the Agamemnon (689) —
iXAva^, IXavBpo^, iki'irroXi^.

It has been suggested, and perhaps with truth,
that the name of Nicias, the son of Niceratus, as
well as his actions, commended him to the favour
of the Athenians*

Such plays on words are common everywhere.
But it has been well remarked that when the
ancients meddled with etymology they took leave
of their usual sanity, and even when they hit upon
an accurate derivation, it was merely a brilliant
guess based on no scientific principles, and as unlike
the systematic induction of modem philology as the
methods of Democritus were unlike those of Darwin.

38. So late as last century, the etymologies
commonly proposed were so rash and so improbable
that Swift ironically set up as a philologist with
such derivations as ostler from oat stealer, and
Voltaire remarked with considerable justice that
" Etymology is a science in which the vowels count
for nothing and the consonants for very little."

39. It was in the case of the consonants that
scientifle rtudy ^^ rcproach began first to be wiped oflF.

of language, siucc vowels changed, as we have seen,
so frequently in difiTerent forms of the same word,
people paid little attention to them, as if indeed
they had nothing to do with etymology. But

— § 40 BOPP, RASK, GRIMM 47

the consonants appeared in the same form much
more constantly, and hence scientific progress began
with the careful investigation of the consonants.
Franz Bopp (bom 1791, died 1867)
was the first great scientific writer on
comparative philology. However strongly Bopp
may have desired to establish a systematic relation
of sound changes between different languages, he
often allowed himself to be carried away by plausible
derivations which set all laws of sound entirely at
nought. The Germanic languages were first investi-
gated by Bopp's contemporaries, the Dane E. K.
Eask (1787-1832), and the more famous
brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm jacobandwii-
(Jacob 1785-1863, Wilhehn 1786- i»ei°» Grimm.
1859). The first part of Jacob Grimm's Devische
Orammaiik appeared in 1819. In the second
edition of this work, which appeared in 1822,
were first clearly laid down the regular sound-
changes which exist between the classical and the
Germanic languages, and which make English
words look so unlike their Latin and Greek
equivalents (see § 100). The principle of the
change had been seen by Eask at an earlier period,
and it was known perhaps even before him, but
Grimm was the first to enunciate it fully and
scientifically. Hence this great generalisation has
always been known in England as ** Grimm's
Law."

40. As has been hinted, Bopp was not so strong
in etymology as in other departments of comparative
philology. The first systematic book of derivations

48 POTT, CURTIUS, SCHLEICHER % 40 —

on a scientific basis was the Etymologische Farsch-
p^^ ungm of A. F. Pott (1802-1887), which

appeared in two volumes in 1833-1836.
To him we owe a very large number of the recognised
etymologies of Indo-Germanic words and the first
tabulated comparison of sounds from the languages

included in his investigation. He was

followed byGeoigeCurtius(1820-1885),
whose well-known work The Principles of Oreek
Etymology (1858, 5th edition 1879, 2nd English
edition 1886) comprehends a comparison of the
Greek words with their Sanskrit, Zend, Latin,
Germanic, Letto- Slavonic, and Keltic equivalents.
Here the sounds were discussed fully and systematic-
ally, and changes which apparently proceeded on
no system were grouped together under the heading
of "sporadic change." From 1850 to 1870 the
efforts of the great philologists were devoted
rather to organising and systematising the matter
already acquired than to breaking new ground.
Much was done in this period for individual
languages of the Indo-Germanic family, but no
great discoveries affecting the whole were made.
August Schleicher (1821-1868), who has

exercised on the history of philology

Schleicher. , . „ •^ , ^^ .^•'

even a greater mfluence than Curtms,
resembled him in his power of oiganisation, while
he differed from him in his point of view. Curtius
looked at language in its history ; Schleicher, himself
a skilled scientific man, viewed it from the stand-
point of natural science. The next great landmark
in the history of philology, after the Comparative

§ 41 BENFEY, MAX MULLER, ASCOLI 49

Grammar of Bopp (1833, 3rd edition 1869-1871)
is the Compendium of Comparative Grammar by
Schleicher (1861, 4th edition 1876). Theodor
Benfey (1809-1881) held an independent attitude,
and in later life concerned himself more immediately
with Sanskrit Unvarying rules were not as yet
laid down with regard to sound- change, but there
was a general tendency to demand greater precision
in the correspondence between words which were
said to be related to one another. The general
results of the scientific investigation of this period
were made accessible to the public at

^ Max Miiller.

large in Max Mliller's Lectures on the
Science of Langiiage (1861 and 1864).^

41. In 1870 the Italian scholar G. I. Ascoli
pointed out that the A;-8ound, modifica- ascoU's theory
tions of which appear in such words as Jnd Yte d^eiop-
Skt. dgvas, Lat. equus, Lith. ow^d (§ 20), ™^"**-
was of a nature originally different from that which
appears in Skt ndkti-, Lat. nodi-, Lith. naJcti-s,
The former sounds were called palatal, the latter
velar gutturals (§§ 67, 68). Besides these A;-sounds,
original g and gh sounds were shown to exist of the
same kind. In Sanskrit another class of guttural
sounds appeared which are usually represented by

^ It ia needless to say that a more elaborate account, inclading
the question of linguistic development generally, could not pass
over (1) the influence of Wilhelm von Humboldt, and of his editor
and disciple Steinthal, both of whom are the forerunners of Paul's
book (§ 44), and of a later work, Die Sprachvnssenachaft (1891), by
the Chinese scholar Q. von der Gabelentz ; (2) the great Com-
parative Dictionary of the Indo-Oermanic Langiiages by August
Fick (Ist edition 1868, 4th edition 1890-1894).

£

50 TIVO SERIES OF GUTTURALS § 41

c, j, and h. Ascoli observed that these gutturals
were often followed by an t-sound, but he did not
work out the theory in detail In 1876, when
the discussion of phonetic principles was most
active and attention had been drawn anew to the
vowels by Brugmann's discoveries (§ 42), a number
of scholars in different Danish and German
universities found out simultaneously and in-
dependently the cause of the variety in the
Sanskrit gutturals. The results were first published
by Osthofif, Collitz, and Johannes Schmidt, in essays
which appeared in 1878 and 1879. It has now
been shown conclusively that this second class of
gutturals, c, y, and A, arose from the velar, ft, ^, and
gh, owing to the influence of a palatal sound after
them — i,e. an i sound (English ee in seen) or an «
sound (as in set).

42. This discovery, taken in connexion with

Bnignuinn'B Certain discoveries of Karl Binigmann

theory of n«aais.p^yiglj^^j in 1876 with regard to the

nasal sounds of Indo-Germanic, entirely revolution-
ised the theory of the original vowels.

In Sanskrit and in Gothic, two languages which
represent two main branches of the
Indo-Germanic family, there appear but
three simple vowels, a, t, and u. These, Grimm had
accordingly assumed, represented the number and
character of the original vowels. Bopp accepted
Grimm's theory, and it passed without demur into all
succeeding works. The multiplicity of vowel sounds
in such languages as Greek was taken as a later
development, and the a, e, and 0 which appeared

§ 42 VOCALISM AND ACCENT 61

in such languages where Sanskrit had onlj a was
explained by Curtius' theory of the " splitting of the
original a-sound."

Johannes Schmidt, in a very learned work on
the VoccUism of the Irido - Qermanic Languages
(1871 and 1875), had collected amass of valuable
material, but the explanation of many phenomena
of this kind was only rendered possible by a
remarkable discovery made by Karl vemer's accent
Vomer in 1875. This scholar showed ^^"^^^'^
that certain exceptions to the sound-changes known
as Grimm's Law depended on the original accentu-
ation of the Indo-Germanic languages. This dis-
covery, and one made by the eminent mathematician
and Sanskrit scholar H. Grassmann (1809-1877),
with regard to the form which certain roots took in
Sanskrit and Greek,^ finally removed all exceptions
to Grimm's Law, thus strengthening the views
which had been gradually gaining ground as to the
strict observance of phonetic rules and the avoid-
ance of everything known to the older philologists
as " sporadic change." But Vemer's discovery did
inuch more than this. By settling once for all the
character of the original Indo-Germanic accent he
famished a basis on which to found further in-
vestigation concerning the vowels as well as the
consonants of the Indo-Germanic tongues. In the
same way Bragmann's investigation of sonant nasals;
the " sonant nasals " showed that various *^°^* "^'^^'
seeming inconsistencies in the different Indo-
Germanic languages really depended on a law

^ See § 102.

52 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS § 42

pervading the whole group, that e,g, the ace. endiDg
in the singular of consonant stems, Gk. -a (7roS-a),
Lat. -em {ped-em), Goth, -u (originally -um, *fot-um),
Lith. -i (once nasalised) and 0. Bulg. -e, all repre-
sented one original sound, viz. a nasal sound -m
acting as a vowel and forming a syllable by itself.
The ending of the ace. sing, was thus shown to be
m; if a vowel preceded, it was the ordinary conson-
ant equo-m, but if a consonant preceded, it had to
form a syllable ped-m, and in the different languages
this original sound was represented in different
ways. On the same principle, the sounds which
appear as a in the Skt. ma-U-s, as en in Lat. merUi',
as 'un in the Gothic and -m in the Lithuanian cor-
responding words (see § 25), were proved to repre-
sent an original n standing between two consonants
and thus having to make a syllable by itself, mntis.

Even before this Osthoff had shown that in all
probability an original r appeared as a vowel in
the same way, though in Sanskrit grammar, indeed,
an r of this kind had always been recognised by
the native grammarians. These new doctrines were
excellently summarised by Ferdinand de Saussure
in a work of great freshness, Mimoire sur le
8j/stdme primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-
europiennes (Leipzig, 1879).

43. Hand in hand with these important dis-
coveries went a more definite formu-
cipies in modern latiug of philological principles. In

philology: Phon. . ^ , ..^. • i. 1. j i j -^i. j

etic Law and thcory philologlsts had always admitted

the existence of phonetic laws ; in other

words, they had recognised more or less clearly that.

— § 43 PHONETIC LAW AND ANALOGY 63

thoagh there might be a slight residuum which
came under no rule, still in certain circumstances
sounds changed in the same way. In the making
of etymologies phonetic laws were supposed to be
more carefully observed than they had been by
Bopp, though precept and practice did not always
perfectly correspond. Philologists had also admitted
in theory that the action of the mind influenced
the forms of words in various ways. When a form
was erroneously connected in the mind of the
speaker with other forms which did not really
belong to it, it had been recognised that this
tended to counteract phonetic law. But the matter
had not been carefully inquired into. Now, how-
ever, "False Analogy,"^ as this effect

Analogy.

of the action of the mind was called,

became recognised as a great factor in the history

of language. Professor W. D. Whitney ^

gave the impulse * to this in Lariguage

and the Stvdy of Language (1867), where he dwells

on the tendency children manifest to make all verbs

uniform : to say " bringed " because they are taught

to say "loved," or, on the other hand, to say

' As " Philology " is now largely used in the sense of *'Com-
parstiTe Philology," so ** Analogy" alone is constantly employed
to mean "False Analogy."

^ This phrase has been misunderstood by Prof. F. Max Miiller,
who says {Contributions to the Science of Mythology^ vol. i. p. 818)
that I attribute the discovery of the influence of analogy to Prof.
Whitney. I but state what the scholars who made analogy
prominent as a principle have themselves frequently affirmed —
that it was to Whitney's remarks that they owed their inspiration.
[Kote to Second Edition.]

54 FORMULATION OF THE PRINCIPLES % 43 —

"brang" because they remember "sang" (pp. 27,

28, 82, 85). W. Scherer (1841-1886), in his

work On the History of the German Language

(1st ed. 1868), applied the principle of analogy on

a larger scale. A decisive step was marked by the

declaration in Professor A. Leskien's

prize essay on Declension in Letto-

Slavonic and Germanic (1876), that phonetic laws

had no exceptions. In the introduction to the

first volume of Osthofif and Brugmann's Morpho-

osthoffand logischc Untersuchungeu (1878) the

Bragmann. principles of Lcskicu's adherents were

definitely laid down. These principles were two

(p. xiii.) : —

(1) Phonetic change proceeds according to laws
which have no exceptions. In other words, a sound
changes uniformly over the whole area where a
language is spoken, if the language is not spUt into
a number of dialects. Diflferent dialects may and
do develop in different ways.

(2) As it is obvious and admitted that in the
modem forms of language analogy or form-associa-
tion plays an important part in the history of
words, so we are entitled to assume a similar part
for it in the past history of language.

44. The older philologists had, as has been
said, admitted a large part of this in
the modern theory; they had formulated phonetic
*^' laws, they had admitted the working of

analogy in language, but they were startled at the
hard and fast application of these principles by
the " Neogrammarians " (JuTiggrammatiker), as the

— § 44 OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY 55

adherents of these ideas came to be called. During
the following seven years a fierce controversy raged.
Two books which appeared in 1880 — Prof. B.
Delbruck's Introdtution to the Stvdy of

,-r^ ,. , , ^«^^v ^ Delbrttck.

Language (English ed. 1882), and
Prof. H. Paul's Frinciples of the
History of Language (English ed. 1888) — sketched
the history of the science and formulated the new
views with greater care and at greater length than
had hitherto been done.^ Gustav Meyer's Griechische
OramvuUik, which also appeared in 1880, treated
Greek from the new point of view.

- G. Meyer.

The controversy came to a head m
1885 when Curtius published a pamphlet in
support of his views, which was immediately
answered by counter - pamphlets from
Delbriick and from Brugmann, and
supported somewhat later by Hugo Schuchardt,
while in the philological journals many others
joined in the fray. The result was an undoubted
triumph for the new ideas. Even philologists who
stand aloof from the party of the " Neogram-
marians" show in their writings the influence of
the party's hypotheses. Brugmann and Delbriick's
great work Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik
der IndO'Germanischen Sprachen, though containing
much more detail, and covering the whole field of
sounds, forms, and syntax, will stand in the same

^ Professor Panl's work is, howeTer, much more than the
philosophical representation of the new views ; it is really a guide
to the principles of language in general, and is, apart altogether
from the point of view of the author, of the very highest value to
erery student of language.

56 THE SCIENTIFIC NATURE

relation to the "New Philology" as Schleicher's
CompeTidium did to the old.

45. Though a great deal of extraneous matter
Is Philology a w^ dragged in, the issue at the bottom

science? ^f ^^iQ wholc coutroversy about phonetic
law was, " Is, or is not. Comparative Philology a
science ? " Now, if we adopt Whewell's definition
of a science as a " body of knowledge," comparative
philology has always been a science. But if with
Comte we affirm that science implies prevision,
that, given certain circumstances and the result in
one case, science can forecast for us the result in
other cases, are we entitled to declare philological
knowledge scientific? To this there can be but
one answer. If e,g, an original sound resembling
the English w becomes in one Greek dialect under
exactly the same circumstances, sometimes ^, some-
times the spiritus asper, and sometimes fi at the
beginning of words, while in the middle of words
it disappears entirely or remains as v, it is abso-
lutely impossible to foresee what form in any
particular case this phonetic Proteus will take.
Philologists may gather multitudes of instances
where these strange phenomena occur, but explana-
tion is as impracticable as it would be in chemistry
if, when two simple elements were mixed together,
the result might be indifferently, water, or car-
bonic acid, or spirits of salts. The same causes
under the same circumstances must produce the
same results, otherwise scientific knowledge is im-
possible.

46. It is at this point that philology parts

§ 47 OF COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY 57

company with the natural sciences. If the chemist
compounds two pure simple elements,

- , , , , How Phlloloey

there can be but one result, and no power differs from the

_ , , . ^ . -w^ natural sciences.

of the chemist can prevent it. But,
as has been said, the minds of men do act upon
the sounds which they produce. The result is
that, when this happens, the phonetic law which
would have acted in the case is stopped, and this
particular form enters on the same course of
development as other forms to which it did not
originally belong.

The consequence is that a philologist must, in
formulating phonetic laws, be careful to see that
he is not including in his generalisation forms
which have been brought by this psychological
force to resemble other forms, but which are really
fundamentally dififerent. The tracing of regular
sound-changes, and the search for the effects of
analogy, must go hand in hand. It is one of the
hardest tasks of the philologist to duly apportion
the share which these two great forces, phonetic
law and analogy, play in the history of words.
In many cases the facts of the linguistic history
are so scant that it would be rash to decide dog-
matically till more knowledge has been obtained. By
a free use of analogy, where facts are few and specula-
tion is easy, it is not difficult to reach conclusions
which further inquiry at once renders ridiculous.

47. Writers on analogy generally class the
various forms which it takes under
three heads : (L) logical, (ii.) formal
analogy, (iii.) a combination of (L) and (ii.).

58 CLASSIFICATION OF THE % 48

48. (i.) Logical analogy appears in those cases
where particular forms of a word influ-
^^mjo^T^ ®^ce other forms of the same word. In
the original Indo-Germanic word for
" foot " we have some reason to suppose that, owing
to the influence of accent, some cases had an -0-
and others an -e-sound, that the accusative was
*pod'm, but the locative *ped-i. In Greek, how-
ever, the -o-cases* have driven out the -e-cases,
while in Latin the exact reverse has taken place.
In Greek the only traces of the old inflexion are
ireSd, the instrumental form now used as a preposi-
tion, and such derivatives as ire^o^ = *pedjp8, and
rpdire^a. In Latin no trace is left of the -o-cases,
except in the derivatives tri-ptid'ium, etc., where
'piid- represents an older -pod-. In the same way
irarrip had originally an ace. irarepa, a locative
iraripi, and a genitive irarpo^) but the locative and
ace, on the one hand, affect the genitive and produce
TTarepo?; the genitive, on the other hand, affects
the locative (later used as dative) and produces
irarpi In Latin the weaker have, in all the
oblique cases, ousted the stronger forms; hence
patrem, pcUre, patris. On the other hand, the long
form of the nominative dcU&r has been carried
through all the cases, datorem for *dat8rem, datdre
for *dat^e, dcUdris for *datris. For exactly the
same reason later Greek has yeyovafiev, etc., after
yeyova, instead of the correct Homeric form
yiyafiev, and out of the Old English preterite
inflexion —

— §49 PHENOMENA OF ANALOGY 59

Sing. Plur.

1 sang \

2 swivgt > mngon

3 sang )

we obtain the modem saTig and sung used indiffer-
ently for singular or plural (see also § 31).

The same thing also appears in French. Ac-
cording to the position of the accent in the Latin
verb the corresponding old French parts take
different forms ^ :

Sing. Plur.

(1) aim — dmo anwns^aTndmus
aimes — dmas amez — amdtis

aime(t) = dmat aiment = dmant

(2) lieve = Uvo levons = levdmus
lieves = Idvas levez = levdtis

lieve = Uvat lievent = Uvant

With the same number of parts in both cases to
influence, analogy generalises the opposite forms —
the longer forms in aimer, the shorter forms in
lever. As the long forms in aimer are twice as
numerous as the short ones, the result might be
expected ; but in lever the fewer forms triumph over
the more numerous.^

49. Sometimes the development of analogies of
this kind may be represented by a pro- proportional
portion, a form being coined to stand an^i^gy-

^ Osthoff, Pstfchologisches Moment, p. 29. Darmesteter, La vie
des Mots, p. 10.

' It is, howoTer, possible that we have partially fonnal analogy
here, becaose many verbs as porter, etc., did not change their
▼owel character in any of the persons.

60 PROPORTIONAL ANALOGY §49 —

in the same relation to an already existing form
as two other forms are to one another. Legimini
is the plural of a participle which has come to be
used as the 2nd pers. plural pass, of lego ; legebamini
is merely a spurious imitation of this form, there
being no participle of this kind. It arises in this
way — leg-or : leg-imini iilegebar : x, and x in this case
is legebamini. An interesting example of the same
kind occurs in some German dialects. Of the
German personal pronouns, those of the first and
second persons have a special form for the dative
distinct from the ace. : dat. mir, dir ; ace. mich,
dich. In the literary language sich is the sole
form for dat. and ace. But by proportional
analogy — '

mich : mir ) . ,

> ::sich:x,

dich : dir

and the form sir is actually used in several places
at the present day. In other places, as there is
no form sir, mir and dir have also been given up,
and mi(Ji and dich are used for the dative as well
as for the accusative.

50. (ii) Formal analogy appears where forms
(ii.) Formal ana- of OTLB word influeuce f onus of auothcr
lo^yinthenoun. ^jji^j^ bclougs to a different category.
This produces the irregular declension of nouns
and genuine irregular verbs. In Old English, foot
and book belong to the same class of nouns. Both
form the plural by a change in the root voweL
Thus instead of books we ought to have *6eeA: (like
feet) for the plural. Book now follows the analogy

— § 61 FORMAL ANALOGY 61

of the majority of nouns, which have their plural
in -8. In Greek, XoDKpdrrf^ has the same apparent
ending in the nominative as ^AXjeifiuiSrff:, hence
also the accusative XtoKpai^v. Xecov is the same
word as the Latin leo, but the genitive of the one
is X€oi/-T09, of the other ledn-is. The feminine
\eaiva shows that the inflexion was originally like
racTtov, T€Krovo<:, so that the Latin is nearer the
original than the Greek. Xeov-ro^ has arisen from
a confusion with participial stems in -irr-, as irXewv,
p€<Dv, and noun stems like yeptovj the nominatives
in both cases being alike.

In Latin there was a masculine and a neuter
t^-stem : (1) perns corresponding to Skt. papAs, masc. ;
(2) pecii, Skt. pdgu, Goth, faihu, Eng. fee ^ (cf. pecu-
nia), neut The masc. stem changed in two different
ways : (a) it became neuter and made its genitive
pecoris after neuter stems, like geniLSy pectm (where
u represents an original o), instead of forming its
cases like fTuctus or acus; (b) it became fem. and
made a genitive in -rf-, pecU-dis, probably first
*peeudts, on the analogy of forms like incus, incudis.

5 1 . Changes in the verb are very frequent.

In English, as has already been ponnai analogy
mentioned (§ 30), many verbs have *^t^«v«'^-
passed from the one conjugation to the other,
the vast majority transferring themselves from
the old system with ablaut to the later formation
with -ed. Thus the verbs sow, bake, climb, slit,
creep, and many others, formed the preterite by

* Eng. /««, representing O.E. feoh, now obsolete, the word in
me being of a different origin (see Bradley in N,E,D. sub voce).

62 FORMAL ANALOGY IN THE § 61

a change in the vowel, as sew, etc., and in various
dialects they do so still.^ Sew, beuk, clamb, crap are
still the preterites in Lowland Scotch, but in
literary English all these verbs h^ve long formed
the preterite in -ed. The verb wear has reversed
the process and become a strong verb, though
originally weak, no doubt under the influence of
bear and tear. These strong verbs occur now so
rarely that the making of them comes within the
province of the humorist : " a smile he smole, and
then a wink he wunk," ^ etc. Occasionally, as in
the case of cleave (split), a strong verb, and cleave
(adhere), a weak verb, two verbs have become
confused together in their forms. Sometimes such
confusions are very old ; in the oldest relics of the
Norse and West Germanic dialects there is the
same mixture of the forms of flee and fly as exists
in modem English. It is probable that some parts
formed from the roots dhB " place," and do " give,"
were confused even in the original language.

In Attic Greek there is a tendency in verbs to
pass over from the -fu to the -co conjugation ; hence
arise parallel forms SeU-vv-fii, BeiK-vv-w. In Aeolic
the tendency is in the contrary direction ; thus in
the contracted verbs we have ^tXiy/xt, yiKavfu,
BoKLfiMfu, and the like. In many Greek dialects
the present and aorist infinitives end in -fiev, as
in the Homeric IfifjLcv, Sofiev, Oifiev, etc In the

^ Skeat, English Etymology (First Series >), §§ 189 ff.

' Prof. Skeat points out to me that though the O.E. wineian is
a weak verb, wonk, a strong preterite, is found as early as Laneeloi
of (he Laik, 1. 1058 (about a.d. 1500).

— §64 ENGLISH, GREEK, AND LATIN VERB 63

inscriptions of Bhodes and some other islands
there appear forms in '^ij^iv, elfiSLv, Oefie^v, Sofietv,
and many others. The diphthong is produced by
the influence of the ordinary infinitives in -eiv}

52. In Latin the whole of the original -mi verbs
except mm have passed over to the -0 conjugation ;
cp. junffo with ^evyvvfii, do with SiStofu, etc.

In late and corrupt Latin formal analogy plays
a great part In the classical period credo and vendo
make their perfects credidi and vendidi; in late
Latin panda makes pandidi as well. In early Latin
sieti {stiti) is a unique formation; from the form
with i comes the Italian stetti ; diedi from dedi
becomes on the analogy of this form detti ; vendo,
credo, etc., follow the example of the simple verb,
and ultimately there are twenty-nine Italian perfects
in -etti, all springing from the influence of a single
original form.

53. Another set of forms widely developed in
the fiomance languages is descended from participles
which in late Latin followed the analogy of the few
forms from verbs in -uo, imbutus, aciUus, etc. Ruptus
was ousted in favour of rumputus, French rompu;
Unisus was replaced by tonduttis, Fr. tondu ; venditus
by venduttis, Italian venduto, Fr. vendu ; visics by
vidiUus, Ital. vedvio, Fr. vu,

54. (iii.) It is possible also to have a combination
of logical and formal analogy. A good

1 • xi. J fT / ir *fT / (i».) Logical and

example is the word Zeu? for Zrjv^, formal analogy

corresponding to an Indo-Germanic form

*djiii8. According to Greek phonetic laws this

' G. Meyer, Gr. Or,* § 696.

64 ANALOGY IN GENDER § 64

should have gen. Atfo9, dat. Atft, with ace. Z^i/,
which actually appears three times at the end of
a line in the Uiad, viii 206, xiv. 265, xxiv. 331.
But through the influence of formal analogy the
ordinary ending -a was appended — Zrjva^ From
this form, partly by logical, partly by formal
analogy, Zrjvo^; and Zrjvi were developed, and from
these forms Plutarch makes even a plural Zrjv&;,
The inflexion of rU follows exactly the same course,
and as the original forms Ato9y ^d still appear, so
fragments of the old declension of rU remain in
ri-al and in the compound a<r<ra or arra in Attic

5 5. Analogy affects also the gender of substan-
Anaiogy in tivcs. lu the Indo-Gcrmanic languages

gender. gender was apparently at first purely
grammatical; it did not depend, as in English,
upon the meaning, but varied according to the
nature of the ending which the word had. But
one word soon affected another. Spoao^ with a
masculine ending became feminine because eptrrf
was feminine ^ ; 1^0*09 and ijireipo^ with masculine
endings followed the gender of yfj. In Latin,
apparently because arbos was feminine, fagiis, omus,
etc., became feminine. Logical gender sometimes
influenced the grammatical gender. Vmtis is
properly a neuter noun like genus; when the
quality "beauty" becomes the goddess "Beauty,"

1 Meyer, Or. Or,* § 324.

^ In Aeschyl. Agamemnon, 561, 562, Spdaoi is followed by ti04pt€$.
As it is preceded by XcifnivioL (? -oc) there is possibly some corrup-
tion, but it is deserving of notice that the word is not found in
Homer.

— § 66 ANALOGY IN SYNTAX 65

the word naturally changes to the feminine.
Grammatical gender seems sometimes to have
changed with the phonetic change in the form.
If sedes and plAes are really the same words as
^09 and iryJjOo^, they are examples of this. As
fides has connected with it a rare adjective ^t^-^i^-^/
it may have been originally a neuter word like
gmus, which, having in some way passed from
^fid-US to fides in the nominative, consequently
changed from the neuter gender to the gender of
other words ending m -es?

56. Analogy affects also the domain of Syntax.
Little has been done as yet in this field.^ One or
two examples may be cited to show the problems
which call for solution. In the original Analogy in
Indo-Germanic language there existed <^ro«^ "y^^ax.
an ablative case, which indicated the starting-point
of the action denoted by the verb. In most stems
ablative and genitive are identical from a very
early period, and consequently the use of the
ablative without a preposition even in the Veda,
the oldest literature of an Indo-Germanic language
which we possess, is rare with verbs of going,
coming, and such like. In Homer verbs of this

^ The formation, if trustworthy (the word exists only as quoted
by Festna), is parallel to venua-tus from Venus, vetiis-tU'S from
flehtf, which was itself orgiinally a substantive identical with the
Greek ft-oj {Firos), op. § 138 note.

^ For an elaborate classification of the phenomena of analogy,
Bee Analogy, and the Scope of its AppliccUion in Language^ by
Benjamin Ide Wheeler (Ithaca, America, 1887).

' A beginning made by H. Ziemer, Jtmggrammaiische Streif-
xfkqe im OebieU der Syntax (2nd ed. 1888), is followed up by
6. Hiddleton, Analogy in Syntax (1892).

F

66 ANALOG Y IN S YNTAX § 66

class never take the genitive unless when they are
compounded with a preposition. .But the old
ablatival form which has become adverbial may be
used with them without a preposition, Kiuairfiev
lovaa, oiKoOev ff^e. The Attic poets, however, do
use the genitive alone (cp. Soph. Antigone, 417, 418,
j(0ovo^ Tu^ci)? aeipa^ axiprrov), extending the usage
on the analogy of other verbs, as in iraiBo*; iS^faro, etc.
(see Monro's Homeric Grammar, § 152). A parallel
case is H, xvi. 811, htZa^Koiievos iroTUfioto, the
only instance of a genitive with this verb. It
follows the analogy of €t&09,^ which in this meaning
regularly takes a genitive. The occasional occur-
rence of ei with a subjunctive, of idv with an
optative, really arises from a similar tendency, two
independent constructions being confused together.
8r)\ov oTt and olB' ori, are so often used as meaning
evidently and doubtless, that ultimately they are
treated quite as adverbs; cp. the ordinary use of
hrfKovoTi in Aristotle, and such constructions with
oW ore as Plato, ApoL Socr. 37 b, €x<ofuu &v eS
oW on Kax&v ovrwv, = rovrtov h 65 olha tcaK^ Svra,
57. In Latin, Flautus has many similar con-
Analogy in structious. lu MUcs Oloviosm, 371,
lAtin syntax. ^^ gj^^j quem pol ego capitis pei'dam.
The construction, which also occurs elsewhere,
follows the analogy of damnare aliguem capitis. In
the same play, 619, the poet writes —

Facinora neque te decora neque tula virtutibas.

^ See Ameis-Hentase's commentary on the passage. Cp. also
Monro, H,0,%lh\d,

— § 68 THE SCIENCE OF MEANING 67

The construction of decarus with the ablative is
unparalleled, but it obviously arises from the use
of the word in the sense of dignus, Tenus, an
" improper " preposition, governs the ablative on the
analogy of the regular prepositions; but it shows
that to some extent it is still felt as the ace. of a
noun by occasionally taking the genitive, genus
terms "as far as (literally, to the extent of) the
knea" In its prepositional usage, however, we
have ore tenus " up to the mouth," etc.

58. With this phase of analogy. Semasiology —
the science which traces the develop-

SoQutsiology.

ment of the meaning of words — is
closely connected. This science also is only in its
infancy.^ The interest of the subject can easily be
seen from the history of words like pagarms, which
originally denoted the inhabitant of a pagus or
country district. As such people were late in
receiving new ideas, the modem notion of pagan
developed out of the word. Literature has thrown
even a greater slur on the vUlanus — ^first, the dweller
in the farm-house ; then, from the position of vUlani
in the late Boman empire, vUlein, a serf; and, lastly,
villain in its modern sense. Knave once meant
only servant-boy. In English the word has deterior-
ated ; in German hiabe means boy still. On the
other hand, knight, which also originally means boy,
youth, appears in the sense of hero in both Old
English and Old German ; in the former it retains
its nobler meaning, in the latter batier-knecht now

^ The subject has been admirably treated by M. Br^al in his
Euai de S4ma,ntique (Pans, 1897), now translated into^English.

68 CHANGES IN MEANING % 68 —

means farm^servant. The word loon, which appears
in the ballad of Chevy Chase as the opposite to
lord —

Thou ahalt not yield to lord nor loon,

seems to have meant originally a " base, low fellow " ;
in northern Lowland Scotch it is now the ordinary
word for hoy.

Another word which has had a very interesting
history is Tioon. This is the Twna horn of the
Bomans, and ought therefore to mean not midday,
but three o'clock in the afternoon. The cause for
the change of meaning was a strange one. It was
the custom of the pious in Early England to fast
the whole day till three, at least on Wednesdays
and Fridays; but though the spirit was willing,
the flesh was weak, and, by judiciously quickening
the course of time, the holy fathers salved their con-
sciences and enjoyed their meal three hours earlier.^

Among the most extraordinary changes in
signification which can be historically traced are
those of the word Tripos, which is used in Cambridge
University to mean the Examination for Honours.
(1) The word is found as early as the middle of the
sixteenth century, in the meaning of the three-
legged stool (rpiirosi) on which the Bachelor of Arts
sat who conducted the disputation for the University
with the " Questionists," then to be admitted
Bachelors. (2) The disputation presently degener-
ated into a farce, and the Bachelor was now
expected to show his wit in personalities rather

^ See Prof. Mayor's note on Bede, iii. 5.

— § 69 BORROWING OF WORDS 69

than his wisdom in disputation ; the name is now
applied not to the stool but to the Bachelor.
(3) The next stage was that two Bachelors made
speeches of a humorous character at the prior and
latter acts of Bachelor^s Commencement. When
these Tripos-speeches were given up, (4) two sets
of Tripos-verses had to be written by each of the
two Tripos-Bachelors. This practice of verse- writing
still survives. About 1747-48 (5) the honour-lists
began to be printed on the back of the sheet con-
taining these verses, and from the honour-list the
name has passed to (6) the honour-examination.^

Innumerable examples of similar changes might
be given. These words are but a few samples of
the store, but they fully confirm the observation
of Lucretius (v. 832) —

Namque aliud putrescit et aevo debile languet,
Porro aliud clarescit et e contemptibus exit.

59. The last point to be mentioned in this
connexion is that seeming violations of Borrowing of
phonetic law may often be explained ^°"^^*
by the borrowing of forms from kindred dialects.
The different relays, if we may call them so, of
English words borrowed from Latin, either directly
or through the French, have already been men-
tioned (§ 9). Borrowing between different dialects
of the same language is often much harder to
detect, and, from the nature of the case, is likely
to be much more frequent. Communication be-
tween different sections of the same people is in

* Wordsworth's Schdae Aeademicae, pp. 17-21.

68 CHANGES IN MEANING §68 —

means farm^seTvaTd. The word loon, which appears
in the ballad of Chevy Chase as the opposite to
lord —

Thou ahalt not yield to lord nor loon,

seems to have meant originally a " base, low fellow " ;
in northern Lowland Scotch it is now the ordinary
word for boy.

Another word which has had a very interesting
history is Tioon. This is the ruma hora of the
Eomans, and ought therefore to mean not midday,
but three o'clock in the afternoon. The cause for
the change of meaning was a strange one. It was
the custom of the pious in Early England to fast
the whole day till three, at least on Wednesdays
and Fridays; but though the spirit was willing,
the flesh was weak, and, by judiciously quickening
the course of time, the holy fathers salved their con-
sciences and enjoyed their meal three hours earlier.^

Among the most extraordinary changes in
signification which can be historically traced are
those of the word Tripos, which is used in Cambridge
University to mean the Examination for Honours.
(1) The word is found as early as the middle of the
sixteenth century, in the meaning of the three-
legged stool {rpiirosi) on which the Bachelor of Arts
sat who conducted the disputation for the University
with the " Questionists," then to be admitted
Bachelors. (2) The disputation presently degener-
ated into a farce, and the Bachelor was now
expected to show his wit in personalities rather

^ See Prof. Mayor's note on Bede, ill. 5.

— § 69 BORROWING OF WORDS 69

than his wisdom in disputation ; the name is now
applied not to the stool but to the Bachelor.
(3) The next stage was that two Bachelors made
speeches of a humorous character at the prior and
latter acts of Bachelor's Commencement. When
these Tripos-speeches were given up, (4) two sets
of Tripos-verses had to be written by each of the
two Tripos-Bachelors. This practice oif verse- writing
still survives. About 1747-48 (5) the honour-lists
began to be printed on the back of the sheet con-
taining these verses, and from the honour-list the
name has passed to (6) the honour-examination.^

Innumerable examples of similar changes might
be given. These words are but a few samples of
the store, but they fully confirm the observation
of Lucretius (v. 832) —

Namque aliud putrescit et aevo debile languet,
Porro aliud clarescit et e contemptibus exit.

59. The last point to be mentioned in this
connexion is that seeming violations of Borrowing of
phonetic law may often be explained ^°"^^*
by the borrowing of forms from kindred dialects.
The different relays, if we may call them so, of
English words borrowed from Latin, either directly
or through the French, have already been men-
tioned (§ 9). Borrowing between different dialects
of the same language is often much harder to
detect, and, from the nature of the case, is likely
to be much more frequent. Communication be-
tween different sections of the same people is in

^ Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, pp. 17-21.

70 MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF DIALECTS §69

most cases much easier than communication with
distant peoples, who speak a language which,
' though possibly nearly allied, is nevertheless quite
unintelligible without special training. Kindred
dialects are likely to borrow from one another in
all the ways in which languages borrow from one
another. But they affect one another in their
syntax to a degree which mutually unintelligible
languages never do, except when the districts
where they are spoken border on each other, and
many of the people on both sides of the frontier
speak both languages. Dialectic syntax is likely
to appear largely in literature, for literary men
have always tended to be migratory, and in former
times a court which patronised letters attracted
people from all quarters. A great poet especially,
if popular, is likely to have many imitators who
from their birth have spoken a dialect different
from his, but who will repeat his words and
constructions, though strange to their dialect,
merely because they are his. His influence may
be so great that the dialect in which he wrote
may become the standard or literary dialect for
the future, and natives of other regions will be
expected to conform to it This they will seldom
be able to do with exactness. Traces of their
original dialect will remain. It has been remarked
that some of the best Scotch writers, as Hume and
Adam Smith, were never able to write correct
EnglisL "Hume is always idiomatic, but his
idioms are constantly wrong; many of his best
passages are, on that account, curiously grating and

— § 61 LITER A R Y DIALECTS 7 1

puzzling; you feel that they are very like what
an Englishman would say, but yet that, after all,
somehow or other, they are what he never would
say; there is a minute seasoning of imperceptible
difference which distracts your attention, and which
you are for ever stopping to analyse." ^

it is well known that a foreigner, when once he
has thoroughly mastered a language, will write or
speak in it more idiomatically than a person who
has been brought up to speak a kindred dialect,
although this dialect may be, in the main, intelli-
gible to the speakers of the Icmguage in question.
The reason is that in the second case the resem-
blances are so much more numerous than the
differences that the latter fail to be clearly felt.

60. An example of borrowing in poetry is the
word hon just discussed. According to

Bzamples of

the regular laws of phonetic change in loan - words in

__°_. Till , Bngliah.

English, this word should appear as loun
or lown, a form which sometimes occurs ; but when
Coleridge makes the Wedding Guest address the
Ancient Mariner as " grey-beard loon," he employs
a form which is not English,^ but is borrowed from
the Scotch of the Border ballads, as in one of the
Scotch versions of the battle of Otterbum —

Ye lie, ye lie, ye traitor loon.

6 1. Caxton gives an interesting account of the
difficulty of forming an English prose style in his

1 Walter Bagehot, Biographical Studies, p. 272.

' In other words, the form does not belong to Mercian English,
which is the basis of the modem literary dialect, bat to Northum-
brian English, of which Lowland Scotch is the descendant.

72 INTERACTION OF DIALECTS § 61

time. ''Common English that is spoken in one
shire varieth much from another/' he says, and
proceeds to tell a story of an English merchant
sailing from the Thames, who was wind-bound at
the Foreland, and, going on land, asked at a house
for some eggs. '' And the good wife answered that
she could speak no French. And the merchant
was angry, for he also could speak no French, but
would have had eggs, and she understood him not
And then at last another said he would have ejrren ;
then the good wife said that she imderstood him
welL Lo ! what should a man in these days now
write, eggs or eyren ? Certainly it is hard to please
every man by cause of diversity and change of
language. For in these days every man that is in
any reputation in his country will utter his com-
munication and matters in such manners and terms
that few men shall understand them." ^ Here there
is more than a mixture of mutually intelligible
dialects. The form egg had indeed by this time
become incorporated in an English dialect, and, as
it has happened, in that which has become the
literary language, but it really is a Norse form
introduced by the Danish invaders; eyrtn is the
lineal descendant of the Old English plural dbgru,
with a second plural ending added, as in childer-n,
62. The classical languages, as usual, have

exact parallels to this interaction of
loan-words in dialccts. It is a well-kuowu rule of

Attic Greek that in the first declension
the nominative ending after a vowel or /> is a

^ Gaxton's Prefsoe to hia Bneydos, p. 2.

— § 63 OF THE SAME LANGUAGE 73

and not i; as when other letters precede. But
this role has some apparent exceptions. Kop'^ stands
for KopFri, so that the rule is not really broken;
but ^^01;, 'x\jo'q, d<f>vrj, and a few others do trans-
gress the rule.^ Explanation is not easy in every
instance, but of those cited, ^Oorj is supposed to be
a medical word taken by Plato from Hippocrates,
who writes in Ionic Greek, where 17 is regular.
j(\irf in the best period is only poetical, for the
style of Plato, in whose prose it first appears, is on
the border line between poetry and prose; conse-
quently, as we have seen (§ 59), it may have come
from another dialect d<l>vrj is also an Ionic pro-
duct, while irvoi] and /801; stand respectively for
'nvoFrj and fioFi].

63, In Latin some common words appear in
forms which are most probably Oscan. Loan-worda in
Thus both bos and cms are held by ^"^•
many philologists to contradict Latin phonetic laws.
Bos certainly does ; as venio corresponds to ^aivo),
and vordre to ^t-^fm-aK^vv (v being left to represent
original g\ § 140), so *vo8 ought to be the Latin
form for fiov^. In Oscan and Umbrian b is the
regular representative of this guttural, as in kumbened
(Osa) = canvenit, benust (Umbr.) = venerit

The diflSculties which present themselves in
bringing the sound-changes of Latin under phonetic
laws are perhaps more often the result of borrowing
than is generally supposed. When we remember
that Home was a commercial town on the frontier
of Latium and Etruria, and that, according to
* Heyer, Or, Or.^ § 48. x^^i too, probably stands for x^^^V-

74 HOIV DIALECTS GROW § 63 —

all tradition, her population was from the beginning
composed of different tribes, the existence of such
borrowing will seem not only possible, but even
inevitable.

64. The division of dialects is a subject in
Dialect and which much has still to be done, and
^'*°«'^*^' on which much light will be thrown by
the investigation of modem dialects. As in botany
it is not always easy to decide what is merely a
variety and what is a new species, so here it is
hard to say where individual peculiarity ends and
dialect begins.^ In every classification of dialects
there must be much that is arbitrary. There are
very few characteristics which are peculiar to any
one dialect and shared by none of its neighbours.

When a body of people is sharply divided from
its neighbours, as by living on an island, and inter-
course with the outside world is rare, peculiarities
develop rapidly. This is not always owing to
changes made by the islanders; they are even
more likely to retain old forms and phrases which
presently die out elsewhere. Greece owed its
numerous dialects partly to the character of the
country, which made intercommunication diflScult,
partly to the great number of independent states
within it^ The members of any one of these
states, as being frequently at hostilities with their
neighbours, or not having much business abroad,
naturally soon developed a form of speech which

^ Paul, Prindpien der Spraehge8chichte\ p. 36.
^ This second reason is of course largely dependent on the first
Separation maintained independence.

— § 66 HOW DIALECTS DECA Y 75

was fairly homogeneous for them, though some
among them used words frequently which others
did not On the other hand, there was an ever-
increasing difference from their neighbours. As
soon as the Macedonian conquests broke down
most of the old political distinctions, the various
peoples made ever- increasing use of the koivi],
a dialect founded on Attic, the most influential
of the old dialects. The same holds good now.
If communication with America had been as
difficult always as it was three hundred years ago,
and if emigration from England to America had
ceased, peculiarities in American English would
have been much greater than they are at present.
In modem times the locomotive and the steamboat
ruin local dialects as effectively as the armies of
Alexander did those of Greece. Within England
itself, though dialectic pronunciation will involun-
tarily long survive, dialectic vocabulary is rapidly
disappearing. The man of Yorkshire and the man
of Somerset will become more easily intelligible to
one another by the spread of the English koiv^ —
the literary dialect — which, taught in Board
Schools and read in newspapers, is, in conjunction
with the more migratory habits of the people,
rapidly usurping the place of all local dialects.

6$. This part of Philology proves perhaps
more conclusively than any other the
continuous action of natural forces, tion of natana
In the pre-scientific geology frequent
cataclysms were supposed to occur in the history
of the world, the record of which then began anew.

76 THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE § 66

The older philologists asserted that certain forces
acted more violently at one period than they did
at others. Curtius ^ held that, in the early history
of language, analogy did not play such an important
part as it admittedly does in more recent times.
But of this there is no proof. Just as a harder
layer of rock may resist more effectually the action
of the waves, and by-and-by become a far-project-
ing headland, which alters the course and character
of some ocean current, and changes the geological
history of the neighbouring coast, so in the history
of language there are many events which may
accelerate or retard the action of analogy and of
other forces ; but in either case the force is there,
and has always been, though we may not be able
to trace it. In both cases many a leaf of the
history is missing, and this is true to a greater
extent for language than for geology, inasmuch as
the history of speech is written on a less enduring
material than that which contains the geological
record.

V. Phonetics*

66. Spoken language is the result of a number

Definition of ^f Complicated processes; but as the

language, individual learns in his childhood to

^ Zur KrUik der neuesten Sprachforschung, p. 67.

' For the facts in this chapter I am indebted to Peile's Greek
and Laiin Etymology \ ch. iv., H. Sweet's Handbook of Phonetics
and History of English Sounds^ E. Sievers* QrundzOge der
Phonetik\ and most of aU to Sievers* excellent summary in PauVs
Grundriss der Germanisehen PhiMogie, vol. L pp. 266-299 (Triib-
ner, Strassburg). A useful book for beginners is Introduction to
Phonetics, by Miss Soames (Sonnenschein).

— §67 PHYSICAL APPARATUS OF SPEECH *l*l

speak by imitating other individuals, few people
are aware of the complexity of movements required
in the production of a sentence. Language is
ordinarily described as voice modulated by the ,:
throat, tongue, and lips. This definition is, how-
ever, very inexact. Voice is, properly speaking, ^^.
produced only when the vocal chords (below, § 67) \
are in action, and a large number of sounds do not '
call these chords into play at alL Indeed, a
conversation may be carried on without using them, "^
as actually is done in whispering. Another well- --^
known definition which describes language as
"articulate sound" is equally inexact, for in the ""
production of a number of the consonants called
" mutes " or " stops " there is a very brief interval
of absolute silence owing to the momentary closure
of the breath passage. This is the case in the
pronunciation of A, ty^p^ (§ 68). "Articulate com-
munication" might be a more rigidly accurate
definition, but in actual practice most phoneticians
are content to use " sound," the word which repre-
sents the most prominent feature of language.

(>J, In the production of these articulate sounds
the chief factors are the larynx, the Physiology of
cavities of the mouth and nose, and the i*°p»*8«-
lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. The larynx is a
small cartilaginous box at the top of the windpipe.
The upper end of this box opens into the back of
the mouth. Across the middle of this box two
folds of mucous membrane stretch towards the

' The fact of thia dosore is shown maoh better if these letters
are pronoanced not kay^ tee, pee, as usual, but as iAr, i^ ip.

78 BREATHED AND VOICED SOUNDS § 67 —

centre line from the sides, to which they are

attached. In the centre a slit is left between

them. The folds of membrane are the vocal chords,

the slit which is left between them is the glottis}

Breath and When thcse chords are tightened by

Voice. ^^ action of the muscles, they project

farther towards the centre line than at other times,

and in this tense condition voice is produced by the

air blowing across their edges, which have been

brought parallel to each other, and thus causing

them to vibrate. If the chords do not vibrate,

whisper is the result When this takes place the

air is generally in process of being expelled from

the lungs; but it is possible to produce voice by

inspiration as well as by exspiration. In ordinary

breathing the vocal chords are flaccid, and, the

glottis being wide open, neither the musical note

which constitutes voice, nor the rubbing noise called

^ whispering, is heard. Thus sounds may be pro-

( duced either with hreaih or with voice, and the

( difference between breath and voice depends upon

) the slackness or tension of the vocal chords.

The further character of the sounds of language,
apart from being breaihed or voiced.

Sounds named J^ , ^t .. /» .-i .1

from that part depends on the action of the other

of the mouth *- . . -1 * 1 . -i

where they are orgaus mentioned. A sound in the pro-
duction of which the soft palate (velum)
takes a prominent part, will be called velar, a term
applied to certain very guttural consonants. A sound

^ For a fuller account of the meohanism of speech-production
see Prof. Huxley, Lessons in EUmerUary Physiology, pp. 190 ff.
(reyised edition).

— § 68 MUTE CONSONANTS 79

produced by the help of the tongue when approxi-
mated to the roof of the mouth is called paicUal ;
when approximated to the prominences caused by
the roots of the teeth, alveolar; when to the teeth
themselves, dentai. When the point of the tongue
is turned back, a cerebral sound is produced. A
sound in producing which the lips prominently help
13 called labial.

68. The several classes of mute or stopped
consonants are known by these names. Muteconao-
In the original Indo-Germanic language »»°<»o'8top«.
there was a series of deep guttural sounds re-
sembling A, g, kh, gh, but probably produced farther
back in the mouth than the English gutturals.
These are velars (§139 ff.), written g, qh, g, gh.
Another series of gutturals also existed. These
were produced farther forward in the mouth and
are called palatals — k, kh, g, gh. On the other
hand, the sounds called dentals — t, d, th, dh, where
th represents not the sound in then or thin, but t
followed by a breath — ^are in English pronunciation
not dentals but alveolars, being produced by the
pressure of the tongue against the roots of the
teeth, and not against the teeth themselves, as they
are in German and many other languages. The
labial stops of the original Indo-Germanic language
were p, h, ph, bh.

In the production of these sixteen sounds the
breath passage is for a moment entirely closed.
Hence the name mtUe or stopped sounds, because
there is a very brief interval of absolute silence.
This can be easily tested by pronouncing slowly

80 SPIRANTS CLASSIFIED § 68

and distinctly combinations like oka, cUa, apa. The
name of the sound is taken from that part of the
mouth where the stoppage takes place. It must
also be observed that, in producing all these sounds,
the nasal passage remains closed.

69. If, however, the breath passage of the

mouth is not absolutely stopped, but
only narrowed so far that an exspiration
produces a noise, while the nasal passage remains
closed as before, we have a parallel series of sounds
called " rubbing sounds " or " spirants," which may
be guttural (velar or palatal), dental (alveolar, etc.),
or labiaL Thus to every set of stops we have a
corresponding set of spirants, (a) To velar q and g
correspond sounds which phoneticians represent by
X and 3 respectively; x corresponding to the
cA-sound in (Scotch) loch; 3 to the pronunciation
of g after a-vowels in some parts of Germany, as
in the word Zage. (b) The corresponding pidatal
sounds are represented by x ^^^ V- (p) To t and d
correspond the two sounds found in English thin
and then, represented by the old Germanic symbols
> and d. (d) Similarly p and b have their correla-
tives in /, V, and w, though / and v are not pure
labials, but laiuhderUals, the lower lip being pressed
against the teeth of the upper jaw.

70. Besides ]> and d two other spirants corre-
Threo ciMses of spoud to t and d. These are s and z.
dental spirantB. rphe touguc positiou for thcsc diflTers

slightly from that for > and d, which are frequently
interdental, while for s and z a groove is formed
longitudinally in the tongue. The difference

— § 73 BREATHED AND VOICED CONSONANTS 81

between the two series is, however, smaJl^ and
foreigners in attempting to pronounce > and d
often produce a and z (as in blaze) instead, or, on
the other hand, t and d. Other sounds of a similar
nature are sh and zh (the 2;-sound heard in mzure),
which are generally classed as cerebrals, though
their method of formation is somewhat obscure.

71. An unvoiced spirant produced in the glottis
itself is the Greek spirUus asper ' . Qr^ek spiruiu
Contrast with this the ordinary A-sound ^'^'

(§ 85).

72. If, however, p and h are produced by the
same parts of the mouth and in the

, - - _.„ - Breathed and

same way, how do they dmer from one voiced conso-
another? p and the corresponding
sounds, t, k, q, are produced without voice, and with
the breath alone ; h and the corresponding sounds
d,ff,g, are produced with voice, i,e, in the production
of these sounds the vocal chords are not only
brought closer to one another, but are also made to
vibrate.

Breathed and voiced sounds are also known by
a number of other names, as " Surds " and " Sonants,"
"Tenues" and « Mediae," "Hard" and "Soft"
sounds, and of late as "Fortes" and "Lenes," a
nomenclature derived from the strength or weakness
of the exspiratory effort in their production.

73. From the spirants /, v, >, etc. (^ 69, 70)

we must carefully distinguish the aspi-
re, , , , , Aspirates.

rates. These have been already men-
tioned— qh, gh, kh, gh, th, dh, ph, hh. They are
distinguished from the other stopped sounds by the

82 ASPIRATES, AFFRICATES, SPIRANTS §73

breath which succeeds them before another sound
is produced. Sounds of this nature are to be found
in the vulgar Irish pronunciation of ipig as f-hig,
of water as wat-her, etc. The ancient Greek j^, 0, <f>
were sounds of this kind. In imitation of the
spiritus asper of Greek, some phoneticians write
these sounds Ic, g\ etc.

74. Another series of sounds which must be
also distinguished from spirants and aspirates is the

affricates.^ These consist of a stop

followed by the corresponding spirant

when both hdong to the same syllable, as in German

pferd, zahn (z = ts). kx appears in some Swiss

dialects.^

75. The Indo-Germanic aspirates soon changed
their character in most languages. In the earliest
Greek the Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (gh,
gh, § 113, I. 6), dh, and hh had become breathed
aspirates kh (x)> ^^ (^)» ^^^ P^ (^)- ^^ modern
Greek these breathed aspirates j^, 0, <{>, have become
ch (as in loch), th (as in thin), and /; that is to say,
they are now spirants, and there is some evidence
to show that in Greek, as in many other languages,
the affricates formed an intermediate stage between
aspirate and spirant* The change from aspirate to
af&icate seems to have begun very early, for on in-
scriptions we find j^ written as kx, 0 as t0, and ^
as 7r<^. Sometimes, too, a short vowel before these

^ Sievers, O. d. O. P. p. 282.

^ N.B.—x is not the English sound, but the phonetic symbol
for the velar spirant (§ 69 a).
> G. Meyer, Or, Gr.^ § 210.

— § 77 NASALS AND LIQUIDS 83

sounds is lengthened, as ^yoyyrmv^^ (Aeschylus,
ChoepK 1049).

j6. If now we put the diflferent parts of the
mouth in the proper position to produce
jp, 6, or ty d, or k, g, but leave the nasal
passage open, we produce a new series of sounds
m, n, ng {H palatal, n velar) — ^the nasals. As the
nasal passac^e is open, the nasal sounds

11, . . 1 . . How nasalB dif-

resemble the spirants m being contmu- fer from spirants
ous, while on the other hand the corre-
sponding stops (§66) break off abruptly. In other
respects m, n, ng are produced precisely like h, d, g,
the vocal chords vibrating in the formation of both
series.

77, Other sounds which resemble these in being
continuous voiced^ sounds are the liquids
r and /. Z is produced by closing the
centre of the mouth passage with the tip of the
tongue, thus resembling d, but leaving an opening
at either one or both sides. The sound varies
according to the manner in which the stoppage is
made and the part of the mouth which the tip of
the tongue touches. The one symbol r is used to
denote a considerable number of distinct sounds.
Of these the most important are (1) the alveolar r
pronounced, when trilled, by placing the tip of the
tongue loosely against the sockets of the teeth and
causing it to vibrate with a strong breath ; (2) the
cerebral r (untrilled), produced by the tip of the
tongue turned backwards against the palate; and

' Though these are the ordinary kind, it is possible to produce
all of these sounds without voice.

84 CLASSIFICATION OF §77

(3) the trilled r produced by the uvula, the tip of
the soft palate which hangs downwards. English
r at the beginning of words is the untrilled alveolar ;
after t and d it is almost a spirant. Foreigners
have at first some difficulty in distinguishing tried
and chidt. An unvoiced r is found in the combina-
tion j?r as in 'pride} eta Welsh Z/ as in lAangollen
is an unvoiced / ; so is the English / in flat, help,
etc. The nasal passage is closed in the production
of the liquids.

78. In producing all the sounds which have been
enumerated, the breath passage is to
some extent obstructed, and conse-
quently in the case of the stops there is a moment
of absolute silence when the passage is entirely
closed; in the case of the spirants there is a
distinct noise, as distinguished from a musical Tiote,
produced by the breath rubbing against the narrowed
passage. In the ordinary nasals and liquids this
noise is not observable, though it may be made
evident by increasing the force of the exspiration
and narrowing the breath passage. We come now
to sounds which are purely "voice modified by
different configurations of the superglottal passages,
but without audible friction."^ These are the
vowels. In producing the ordinary vowels the
nasal passage is closed ; when it is open, nasalised
vowels are produced. The factors concerned in
modifying the configuration of the mouth passage

^ Sieyers, Ofwndzflge der Phonetik^, pp. 109 ff., Orwndriss der
Gemu Fhil. p. 278.

> Sweet, HUtory tf Bnglith Scunds^, p. 2.

— § 79 VOWEL SOUNDS 85

are the tongue, the lips, and the cheeks. The
tongue may be raised or lowered, drawn back, or
pushed forward; the lips and cheeks may be con-
tracted so as to round the mouth, or their position
may be changed in other obvious ways.

79. (a) Some vowels are back or guttural sounds,
ie. the voice is modified by the approxi- classification of
mation of the back of the tongue to the (a)BlSrM<i front
soft palate, as a^ 0, u. Others are front ^^"^^^
or palatal vowels, as d,e,i,u; all of which are produced
by approximating, to a greater or less extent, the
upper surface of the tongue to the roof of the mouth.

(b) Vowels may also be classified, according to
the height to which the tongue is raised, ^x High, mid,
as high, mid, and low vowels. Thus i lo^^®^®^
is higher than e, i^ is higher than a,

(e) Vowels are also divided into close or narrow
and open or wide vowels. If the surface ^^^ ^j^^^ ^nd
of that part of the tongue with which op^'^voweia.
the sound is formed be made more convex than it
is in its natural shape, the vowel is close or narrow.
Thus in English the a of father and the u of
btU are both back or guttural sounds, but the former
is an open, the latter a close sound. The vowel
sounds in air and man are both front sounds, but
the former is a close, the latter an open voweL

(d) Lastly, vowels may be rounded or un-
rounded, according to the position of (o) Ronnded »nd
the cheeks and lips. The greatest ^°~^^^^°''^-

* These sonndB are to be produced in the continexital, not in the
English manner; thns a=:ah, u:=oo, i=ee, etc. a is an inter-
mediate stage between a and e ; for ii see § 80.

86 VOWEL SOUNDS § 79 —

rounding goes with the highest vowels. Hence
there are three important degrees of rounding
corresponding to the three degrees of high, mid,
and low vowels. For example, in pronouncing who^
only a narrow opening is left between the lips, in no
the opening is wider and broader, and in saw only
the corners of the mouth are drawn together.^

80. The vowels are often set in a pjrramidal form
Examples of ^ illustrate these characteristics,
voweia. rjij^g ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ represents the gradual

raising of the tongue from the low to the high
position ; the line a, 0, u represents the successive
stages from the unrounded to the fully rounded
voweL These five sounds, of course, only represent
the most clearly marked vowel positions. The
number of intermediate stages between these
positions is infinite, because the positions which
the tongue may assume are infinite. A limited
but still a large number can be distinguished by

the ear. Thus we might have a, a\ a^, a" o^

0^, 0, etc. Some phoneticians distinguish a few

— <ii ,^

intermediate grades by such symbols as a*, e", etc.,
^ Sweet, Handbook, p. 13 ; Sievera, 0, d. Phonetik\ p. 94.

— § 81 SYLLABIC SOUNDS 87

the larger letter indicating that the sound approxi-
mates more to a or e, and so on, as the case may be.
o is a rounded vowel like o with the tongue position
of e. It is found in such words as the French pm
and the German schim, il bears a somewhat similar
relation to u and i. It appears in the French lune, the
German iiier. v in Attic Greek and the vowel repre-
sented in Latin by i or i^ indifferently, as in optimus
or optumvs, were sounds of the same character.

Following these principles, the technical language
of phoneticians describes the sound of a in English
faiher as a mid-back-open unrounded vowel ; u in
the French Iwm is a high-front-close rounded vowel.

A neutral or indistinct vowel, that is, an un-
accented vowel the formation of which is hard to
define, is represented by the symbol a, because on
the whole the sound approaches most nearly to e.
This vowel is represented in English by the initial
vowel of words like ogaiTist, and by obscure sounds
such as the o and er of together when carelessly
pronounced.

8 1. The last important classification of sounds
is into those which can form a syllable gyu^ijic and non-
by themselves and those which cannot, "y"*^*^ sounds.
This is the most important point historically in
connexion with phonetics. The discovery that,
besides the ordinary vowels, certain other sounds
could form syllables by themselves, has done much
to revolutionise comparative philology. These other
sounds are the liquids and nasals, sonant naaais
Vowels, liquids, and nasals are classed ■"'^ "quids.
together as sonants, while the non-syllabic sounds

88 SONANT NASALS AND LIQUIDS § 81 —

retain their old name of consonants. Words like
fathom, smitten, brittle, German bUter,^ might as
well be spelt fathm (as in Old English), smitn,
hntl, bitr. There would be no difference in sound.
The second syllable consists entirely of the sound
of m, n, l,r respectively. Hence philologists repre-
sent these syllabic nasals and liquids by the
ordinary symbols with a small circle below, m,
n, I, r. As will be seen later on (§§ 151-158),
these syllabic sounds have played a very important
part in the history of the Indo-6ermanic languages.

82. All sounds may vary in length according
Long and short ^ ^^ *™® occupicd in their production,

aounda. ^^^ j|. jg important to observe that,
according to many authorities, all sonants appear
in both long and short forms. Thus we have d,
a, etc., but also n, n, etc. (cp. § 151 ff.). Other
authorities, however, argue that a very short vowel
precedes n, etc., in such cases, and forms the real
sonant. Practically, the difference is only a matter
of terminology. That long sonant nasals, etc.
{n, etc.), can be formed seems clear ; whether they
actually existed in the original language is not so
certain.*

8 3. The manner in which one syllable is divided
Division of fro°^ another is also important. Thus

syiubies. ^jjg combination aia may be divided
into (1) a-i-a, (2) ai-a, (3) a-ia, (4) ai-ia (§ 84).

^ In English there is no final sonant r.

^ The views of the opponents of sonant nasals, etc., are represented
in J. Schmidt's KrUxk der SonanterUJieorie (1895), and in FenneU's
IndO'Oermanie Sananta and Consonants (1895).

— § 83 DIVISION OF SYLLABLES 89

In every syllable there is one sound which is much
more prominent than any other. That sound is
the sonant of the syllable. Where two sonants
seem to come together in the same syllable, one of
them really becomes consonantal. Thus, in the
combination ai-a^ a and i, which are both ordinary
sonants, come together in the same syllable, but
if we pronounce the combination it is evident
that a plays a much larger part in it than i. In
other words, a remains a sonant, while i becomes
consonantaL Similarly in the combination a-ia
pronounced a-ya, a is sonant and i consonant.
Combinations of two sonants in the
same syllable are called dipJUhongs.
The term in English is commonly restricted to
those combinations where the first element remains
sonant and the second becomes consonantal, as ay;
but those where the first element is consonantal
and the second sonant, as ya, have an equcd right
to the title. It is also to be observed that, though
in English we apply the term only to combinations
of the ordinary vowels a, e, i, o, u, it may be equally
well applied to combinations with nasals and liquids.
Any vowel may become consonantal in such com-
binations, but i and u do so most frequently, and
are then known as consonant i and consonant u
(written j, ]f). When the liquids and nasals, which
are more frequently used as consonants, are employed
as sonants, they are distinguished by the names sonant
liquids and sonant nasals. We shall see later
(§g 258, 259) that there is exactly the same relation
between en and n, etc., as between m and u, etc. ;

90 GLIDE SOUNDS § 83 —

cp. irivOo^ and irddei {^itnOet, § 157) with <f>€vya>
and <f>vyi].

The vowels, nasals, and liquids are the. ordinary
sounds which can form syllables. 8 also may do
so, as in the ejaculation Pst ! and attempts have
been made recently to show that the corresponding
voiced sound z really did often form syllables in
the original Indo-Germanic language.^

84. In passing from one sound in a word to
Glides, on-giide another, a transition-sound or glide is

andoflf-giide. produced. In a combination like duo
there is a transition - sound which is produced,
though not represented in writing, when the
voice is passing from u\x> 0. Some languages do
actually represent these sounds very carefully in
writing. In these we should probably find the
word written duvx), w is here the " ofif-glide " from
u, the " on-glide " to 0. Similarly there is a transi-
tion-sound produced between d and u. Compare
also ai-ia above (§ 83).

85. Vowels may have a glide to introduce them

if the glottis is gradually narrowed
without Initial through the positions for breath and
^ **■ whisper before voice is produced. If

the stress of the breath is changed from the vowel
itself to this introductory sound, the sound h is
produced; e.g. instead of the sound a, the sound
ha is heard. If the breath is kept back till the
glottis is in the position to produce voice, the
vowel is produced without a glide. If the glottis
is completely closed, so that voice cannot be pro-
1 Thumeyaen, K.Z, 30, p. 351.

UNDS

LIQUIDS

VOWELS

I
Russian "hard"/)

r
(in German)

a 0 u

I
(in Italian gl)

T

e i

I
dialects of India)

r

(in dialect of Kent

and elsewhere)

I
(English, etc.)

r

e i

r

(sometimes as an

ejaculation)

0 u

fi tongue. 0 and u as regards the position of the tongue
ion, and hecause their labial character has an important
tion e and i are classed as dental as well as palatal sounds
7 as 7 or ^.

[To face p. 90.

—% 88 F/TCIf AND STRESS 91

duced till the closure is broken by a special

impulse, an explosive sound or "stop" may be

heard just before the vowel. This

sound, the result of the opening of the

glottis, has been identified with the Greek spirUus

lenis.

86. In the same way a vowel may finish
abruptly while the glottis is still in the

'S \ r • -i. J- Pinal gUde.

position to form voice, or it may die

away through the successive stages of whisper and

breath — the final glida

87. All consonants have an on -glide and off-
elide, except when two consonants come conaonante with

f /i. K.' ^ n J • . , and without

together which are formed m precisely gudes.
the same positions.^ Thus the only difference
between n and d is that for the former the nasal
passage is open, and hence in the combination nd
there is no glide between n and d.

VL Accent

88. Of all the phonetic peculiarities of a lan-
guage, accent is the most important Accent n»ed in
The term accent is applied to denote ^^o^^^^-
two things which are essentially different, and
hence the word is generally used with a qualifying
epithet. Pitch-accent or Stress-acccTU. The latter —
stress-accent — is the form of accent with which
we are most familiar in our own language, though
it is easy to observe that in English pitch-accent
1 Sweet, ff, o/E. S.\ p. 11.

92 TIVO KINDS OF ACCENT % 88

also exists to a considerable extent For example,
observe the difference in accent which appears in
any short sentence pronounced first as a statement
and then as a question.

89. (1) Stress-accent, also known as exspiratorj,

dynamic, or emphatic accent, depends
upon the energy with which the breath

which produces any sound is expelled from the

lungs.

90. (2) Pitch-accent, also known as musical or

chromatic accent, indicates musical tone.

Pitch-accent

which depends on the number of vibra-
tions the vocal chords make in a given time. This
accent is most marked in " sing-song " dialects. It
is well marked in some languages of the present
day, as in Lithuanian, Swedish, and the dialect of
the fishermen of the east coast of Scotland. The
most marked difference between French and English
is the less important part which stress-accent plays
in French.

91. Languages are divided into those with
lAOffoageB with stress - acccut and those with pitch-

pitch-accent. ag^jeut, accordiug as the stress or the
pitch-accent is the more prominent. Every lan-
guage, however, possesses to some extent both
forms of accent. In the ancient Sanskrit and
the ancient Greek the rise and fall in musical
tone was very marked. The accent-signs of these
languages indicate pitch, not stress. The ordinary
view that the Greek accents indicate stress is
erroneous.^

^ In modern Greek the accents do indicate streaa.

§ 93 EFFECTS OF PITCH AND STRESS 93

92. The effects of the two forms of accent are
very different As every sound has a Effects of pitch-
natural pitch of its own, and the pitch •*^®^'*
varies over a considerable scale, it is only to be
expected that, when a syllable has the strongest
pitch-accent in its word, that syllable will have a
high-pitched sonant

We shall find that some vowels, as e and 0,
interchange largely with one another. Of these e
has a considerably higher pitch than 0, and hence
we may expect to find e accompanying the highest
pitch-accent If this theory be true (cp. § 251),
analogy has affected this department of language
perhaps more than any other, but we can still find
not a few instances where the original rule appa-
rently holds good ; compare, for example, nra-rrip
( = original -tir) with ^tXo-Tra-rwp ( = original -tor
unaccented).

93. On the other hand the effect of stress-accent
is to emphasise one sound or one Effects of stress-
syllable at the expense of its neigh- *^°^
hours. More energy is given to the accented, and
less to the unaccented syllables. The unaccented
syllables are slurred over and consequently tend to
disappear. Hence, wherever we find syllables
disappearing entirely, we have reason to suppose
that there stress-accent is at work.

Thus the difference between the root vowels in
^p<o and ^/oa, in Latin tego and toga, in English
Innd and hand, originates in a difference of pitch ;
the disappearance of one or more syllables as in
the pronunciation of history as histry, or in the

94 INDOGERMANIC ACCENT § 93

French frhre, lardn, maryer, the historical develop-
ment of Latin fratrem, latrodnium, mandiicare, is
the result of stress-accent. Similar results may
be produced by greater rapidity in pronunciation,
a factor in linguistic change which has only recently
received much attention. Sounds may actually be
formed and the ear yet fail to catch them.^ The
process of modification may in some degree be
arrested amongst an educated people by a con-
sciousness of the traditional spelling. This con-
sciousness may cause the pronunciation of symbols
in the spelling of borrowed words which repre-
sent sounds no longer pronounced in the language
from which the words came at the time when
they were borrowed, as in the English h-unible,
h'Umour.

94. Both phenomena — ^the interchange of high
and low pitched vowels and the dis-

Accent of the « ii 1 1 1 , ••

indoGer. Ian- appcaraucc of Syllables — can be traced

guage.

hsjck to the original Indo-Grermanic
language, and consequently we have a right to
assume that in this original language, as in those
derived from it, both forms of accent were active,
though perhaps pitch and stress accent were more
equally balanced there than they have been in the
later development of the Indo- Germanic languages.
It may be that first one, then the other, was pre-
dominant.

^ This has been demonstrated by an ingenious apparatus in-
vented by the Abb^ Rousselot and explained in his treatise entitled
Les modificcUioTis phdjn&iques du langage itudUea dans le paiaia
d'unefamille de Cellefrouin {CharerUe), which forms a supplement
to vol. V. of the Bevue dea patois gallo-romans.

§ 97 DEGREES OF PITCH 4ND STRESS 95

95. In both pitch and stress accent three degrees
may be distinguished — the principal

^ ^y. J ^j/i Three degrees of

accent, the secondary accent, and the pitch and stress.
absence of accent. In a long English
word there is really a different degree of stress-
accent on each syllable, but the three degrees given
above are all that it is necessary to distinguish.
The secondary accent is as a rule removed from
the principal accent by at least one intervening
syllable.

96. In both kinds of accent the syllable may
have either one or two " accent-points."

If the syllable has but one "stress-
accent pointy" this indicates that the exspiration
does not come in jerks, but either increases or
decreases in energy uniformly, or else first increases
and then decreases uniformly. If the syllable has
two " stress-accent points " the exspiration in such
a syllable is not uniform, but after a decrease of
energy there is again an increase without the
continuity of the sound being so far broken as to
form two syllables.^ Such double "stress-accent
points " appear in English words like do, Tnan, and
may be indicated by the circumflex do, mdn,

97. In pitch or musical accent we have to dis-
tinguish, besides the uniform tone or Kinds of pitch-
monotone, (1) the falling \ (2) the •^^""*-
rising ', (3) the rising-falling '\ and (4) the falling-
rising ^' tones.

(3) and (4) are generally combined with " double-
pointed" exspiration. Of this kind are the cir-

^ Sievers, O. d. O. P. p. 286.

96 UNACCENTED WORDS §97 —

cumflex accent in Greek and the similar accent in
Lithuanian. The Greek acute accent is the rising (2),
the Greek grave the falling accent (1).

98. It is to be observed that individual words
Unaccented ^s wcU as Syllables may be unaccented.
wordH. These are called enclitics and proclitics,
and in such case the whole clause or sentence forms
one word — e,g, English, ai hms^ don't ; Greek, e? r^v
TToXiv, eiiri fiot ; Latin, nodes-quSy in urbe, etc. In
the original Indo - Germanic language this was
carried to a much greater extent: vocatives were
not accented except when standing at the beginning
of a sentence, nor was the principal verb in all
cases accented (§ 267). Interesting traces of this
are left in the tendency which Greek shows to
place the accent of the vocative and of the verb
as far back as possible: thus waTqp but irdrep,
i'a"xpv. In the latter example, as the augment
was originally a separate adverb, the verb really
still remains unaccented. In longer Greek words,
however, such as e^cpo/te^a, owing to a peculiar
Greek law which appeared at a much later period
and which forbade the accent to be placed farther
from the end of the word than the third syllable,
the original accentuation has been obliterated
(§ 267).

— § 100 GERMANIC CONSONANTS 97

Vn. Differences (1) between English and the
Classical Languages and (2) between
English and other Germanic Languages

^^, The discussion of accent has now cleared
the way to explaining the reasons for
the seeming differences between English twecn the G«r.
words and those words in the classical indo-oerm. lan.

languages which philologists declare to

be identically the same words, or at any rate their

congeners.

lOO. Changes in the primitive Germanic period
and so aflfecting all the Germanic "Grimm's Law."
languages.

(A) Changes in Consonants (cp. §§ 130—141*).

i. The Indo-Germanic breathed stops k {k, ^), t,p
became breathed spirants h {yw^ y), >, /.

ii. The Indo-Germanic voiced stops g {g, jJ^), d, h
became breathed stops k {qu\ t, p.

iii. The Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (gh,
g^h), dhf bh became voiced spirants 3, ef, 6 and then
voiced stops, g, d, b.

These changes (exemplified below) are known as
the Germanic " sound-shifting " or " Grimm's Law "
(§ 39).

Greek Lat. Germiuiic

L k Kapd4a ear{d) Gothic hairt-o £ng. heart

t rpcis ires ,, yreU ,, three

p roiJ* pes „ fot-us ,, foot

(gCD. ToS'lfi) (gen. ped'is)
ii. g iyp-^ ager „ akr-8 „ acre

(ace agr-um)

n

98 GRASSMANN'S LAW % 100

Greek

Lat

Germanic

d

^6m^m

lacr-uma
{*dacruma)

Gothic

Uigr Eng. tear

lb

Tipp-ri

iurh-a

!•

yiurp „ thorp

lubricus

O.E.

alipor „ shpper-y

t

X^^

anaer

Gothic

gans „ ffooae

[rl]-0yi-fu

f(Ji-cUi\

., do

bh

0^p.«

fer-o

II

hair-a „ hear

10 1. The Indo-Germanic breathed aspirates did

Tenuea aapi- ^^^ V^^J * 1^^® P*^^^» ^^^ *'^cir histOTJ

"**^ is not yet known in detail. In Germanic
they became, like other breathed stops, breathed
spirants. In certain combinations, however, they
became unaspirated breathed stops.

Exceptions to Grimm's Law.

102. (a) There are some seeming discrepancies
Giassinann's between the sounds of the original

^^' language as they appear in Greek and
Sanskrit and their representation in Gennania
Thus to the' root of irw0dvo/mi, wevd-, Skt. bodh-,
the corresponding Gothic verb is biiida (1st pers.
sing.) not *piuda as might have been expected.
So Gothic hinday English bindy is from the same
root as irevdepo^t Skt. root bandh-. The explanation
of this is that in the original Indo-Germanic
language these roots both began and ended with
an aspirate Hheiidh- and Hhendh-, and a phonetic
law of Greek and Sanskrit forbade roots to begin
and end with an aspirate. The explanation of the
seeming anomaly is due to Hermann Grassmann

^ In the original Indo-G. language b was a comparatively rare
letter ; hence examples of this sound change are rare and doubtfuL
For other examples of the sound changes see §§ 130 ff.

— § 104 CONSONANT COMBINATIONS 99

and hence is known as " Grassmann's Law" (see
§42).

103. (6) Certain combinations of consonants do
not undergo complete " sound-shifting."

_ ° ^ . , ^ _ Combinations

1. SAT, d, SfD remain unchanged : not affected by

. ' ' f - , ., , - ? Grimm's Law.

Lat. pisciSy Goth, fisks (but by a later
change £ng. fish) : Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts, Eng.
guest; Lat. con-spido, O.H.G. spehdn, Eng. spae-
wife (fortune-teller).

ii. In the combinations kt and pt, t remains
unchanged. oktoh, Lat octo, Goth, ahtdu: Lat
7u>x (stem nod'), Goth. noMs: /cAiTrn;?, Goth,
hliftus, Eng. cattle -Zi/i{-i7i^: Lat. captus, Goth.

iii. Original ^^ became J?^ and later ^ ; original
*](it-t0'8, FuT-TOf;, Goth, ga-vnss, Eng. y-w?is (/ i^ns).

104. (c) Vemer's Law. In the middle of Ger-
manic words if the immediately preced-
ing sonant did not originally bear the Analogical irrel

• • 1 4. • • 1 7 /7^ u\ ^ gularities.

principal accent, original k (Jc, q^\ t, p, s
are not represented by h (hw), >, /, s but by g (gw),
d, h, r, except in the combinations M, h$, ft, fs, sk,
gt, sp. The historical order was (1) the ordinary
change into breathed spirants, (2) a change to the
voiced spirants 7, d, t, z, and then (3) from these
into g, d, b, r. The position of the original accent
is often shown by Greek, much more frequently by
Sanskrit

Skt Gnek Lat. Gennanic

k. yuva^drs : idK-ufOo-t : juffencu-s : Gothic jugg-s, Eng. young
( = •yMtmfd-5) ( = *ivFn-) ( = *yuwnxh')

t. ^aidm : i-xarbw : centum : „ hunda-, ,, hund-rcd

100 VERNER*S LAW § 104

Skt Greek Lat Germanic

p. limpS.mi : Tuwapiu : lipptis : Qothic bi-leiba, O.^g. he-life
("I stick to, "I remain"

smear ")
8. tnusiL : ¥v6t : nurus : 0. £ng. snoru "daughter-
in-law"

As has already been mentioned, the accent
varied in the singular and the plural of the Indo-
Germanic perfect Hence the discovery by Karl
Verner of this law made it at once clear why in
Old English seopan (seethe) had the singular of the
perfect sea^ but the plural sudan and the participle
Ze-soden (sodden), and why far-leosan ( = " lose " in
meaning) had in the perfect sing, far-kas, pL for-
lurouy and in the participle forloren (forlorn). As
the accent also varied in the different cases of the
noun (cp. in Greek ttov? ttoS-o?, etc.) we have in
German hose but in English hare, in Gothic ausO
but in English eaVy each language having modelled
the whole of its forms by analogy on one part of
the original noun forms. Compare with this the
o throughout in ttov?, the e throughout in pes,
though 0 and e both appeared in the original
declension (§ 48).

Analogy has caused some other irregularities.
Thus Eng. brother corresponds regularly to an
original Hhrdtor, but father and mother should
have d instead of ih, since they come from original
*p9-ter, *7nd'tir. The original accentuation of
these words is represented accurately by Sanskrit
only, which has bhrd'td(r), pi-td(r)f md-td(r) ;
Greek keeps the accentuation correctly in ^/oan;/)
{<l>pdra)p, the more regular philological form, is

§ 106 GERMANIC SONANTS 101

cited bj the grammarians) and in irarr^p, but has
changed it in fivT/jp, Old English had correctly
feeder, Tnddor, hrodor, and according to Professor
Skeat,^ father, mother with th hardly appear before
1500 AJ)., the manuscripts of Chaucer having
fader, moder, brother. In south-west Cumberland
and elsewhere the regular forms appear, in northern
Lowland Scotch the analogy has gone in a direction
exactly opposed to English and produced d in all
three cases.

105. (d) Some few irregularities have arisen
from the original root having a byform ^^^^ ^^^^
with a different final consonant produced ^y'o™"-
by assimilation to some suffix. Thus Gk)th. tdikns
(token) belongs to the verb teiha, BeU-vv-fu, dic-o,
but comes from a byform with g for k. In
the same way fiirpnjfii is from a root mi^, and
pango pepigi are forms from the same root as pax
pa^-is.

B. Changes in Sonants.

106. The main differences between the Germanic
and the original Indo-Germanic sonants

, . GtermanicchADgefl

are the folio Wmg : of Indo-Oermanic

sonants.

i Indo-G. 8 became d in Germanic :
o/rrci, Lat. octo, Goth, ahtdu : Lat hostis, Goth, gasts :
oiSay Goth, wait,

ii. Indo.-G. a became Germanic d: (l>pdTrfp,
MTfip, Lat fratery mater, 0. English hrOdor,
Tnddor,

' Principles of English Etymology (First Series^, § 126.

102 DISSIMILARITY OF ENGLISH AND §106 —

iii. Iiido.-6. sonant m and sonant n (m, iC) appear
as um and un : afjM ( = ^smma), Lat. sem-d ( = *mm-
el), Gk)th. sum-s. Negative particle: Greek a-,
Lat in, Goth, wn, Indo-G. *n.

iv. Indo-G. sonant I and sonant r (I, f) appear
as ul and ur (written aur in Gothic, or in some of
the other Germanic dialects): raX-a^, 0. Latin
tvIO (perf. ^irfi), Goth. Jrui-a (dialectic Eng. thole
"bear patiently"), all from *tU-, one form of the
root td'. Kapvo^ (Hesychius), Lat comu, Goth.
haum (Eng. horn),

107. In the primitive Germanic period, as we
have seen, the accent, although no longer a pitch
but a stress-accent, was free to stand on any syllable

Changes in ^ ^ ^^ primitive Indo - Germanic

Germanic accent, period. But SOOU a further chaUgO

came in, by which the first syllable of all un-
compounded words was accented.

108. Further causes of dissimilarity in appear-
Aasimiiation; ^"^^ bctwccn English and classical
final wands.' ^^^^ ^^^ ^j) different laws of as-
similation of consonants; (2) difiTerent treatment
of the final sounds of words.

109. At an early period the Germanic languages

lost a considerable part of their Noun
ush. g changed Inflexion. What was left in English

was largely destroyed by the influence
of the Danish invasion, and still more by that of
the Norman Conquest Further dissimilarity was
produced by English words being now spelt after
the Norman fashion. Many other changes have
occurred since then. Nearly eveiy trace of

§110 OTHER GERMANIC LANGUAGES 103

inflexion has disappeared, and many vowel and
consonantal changes too intricate to discuss here
have taken place.^ One of those which help
most to disguise English words is the change of g
into the spirant y which took place in certain cases.
Thus Gothic ^a-, German j^^-, becomes Middle English
3e, and in Shakespeare and Spenser we find it as y
in ydept, yhight. Final g, as in O.E. bur(u)g, first
became gh or A, huruh, and then passed into 3A before
e ; hence the modern English horough. A final double
guttural appears as -t^e,as in mwJj'ejO.Kmyc^', through
the intermediate stage migge. Another change of the
same kind is that of the O.E. palatal ^-sound in
cild-re into the affricate ch of child, etc.

no. The spelling of modem English is little
different from that of Shakespeare's

, _ _ _ English spelling.

time, but the pronunciation has changed
immensely in the interval.^ Hence our spelling,
which now bears comparatively little relation to
our pronunciation, is a help to the beginner in
tracing the connexions between the words of
English and those of other tongues, but is really
a stumbling-block in tracing the history of the
English language itself, because, as the spelling
is constant, the incessantly varying pronuncia-
tion has to be traced out laboriously from other
sources.

* For a fall account of these changes, see Skeat's Principles of
E. Etyjn, (First Series), chap, xix., and Sweet's History of Engli^
Sounds,

^ Besides Sweet's H, of E, S., compare also A, J. Ellis's great
work, Early English PronundcUion, the fifth and last volume of
which appeared in 1889.

104 LA TER HIGH GERMAN % 111 —

111. It is this incessant change in the sounds

and forms of words which makes com-
forma In phiC parative philologists always deal by

preference with the earliest accessible
forms of any language, these being naturally less
removed from the original t3rpe than later forms
which have undergone a number of further changes.
Isolation and separate development make people
of the same family speak a dififerent dialect: the
same causes make their descendants speak languages
which are mutually unintelligible, and which at
first sight bear no resemblance one to another.

112. Hence languages so nearly related as High
High Gernian con. German and English differ widely in

sonant change. ^^^<^ vowcls and consouauts. The
most marked cause of this was the second or High
German mutation of consonants, which appeared
within historical times.^ It began about a.d. 600
in the most southern districts of Germany and
spread gradually northwards, but never covered
the whole German area. Nor were all the sounds
affected everywhere. The centre of the change was
in South Germany where the original population
had been Keltic, and as the effect moved farther
from the centre it became weaker and less marked.
The northern districts were almost untouched by it.
i (a) t was first affected, becoming the affricate
z ( = ^^) at the beginning of words: Eng. toothy
German zahn ; Eng. two. Germ. zwei. In the middle
and at the end of words it became a spirant z, and

' For a brief but clear account of this, see Wright's Old High
German Primer, §§ 58 ff.

§ 112 CHANGES IN CONSONANTS 105

is now a simple s-sound. Eng. foot. Germ, fuss;
Eng. lety Germ, lassen.

At a later period other sounds were affected.

(h) In the middle and at the end of a word
Germanic k appears now as the spirant ch (p^),
after having passed through the stage of the afiricate
kch {h'x). Thus Eng. speak (O.K also sprecan).
Low Germ, sprekm, H. Germ, sprechen : Low Germ.
ik, H. Germ. ich. In most districts k at the
beginning of words remained intact

(c) In the middle and at the end of words p
became /; Eng. sheep, Germ. scJiaf: Eng. sleep
(Goth, sl^an), Germ, schlafen. Initial p remained
in some districts, but became pf in most. Eng.
pound (O.E. pund), Germ, pfund}

ii The voiced stops g, d, b ceased to be voiced
at an early period, and hence became confused with
k, t, p, from which they differed only in the smaller
energy with which the exspiration was produced.
Hence to the stranger, g, d, b as pronounced in
South Germany sound in many cases exactly like
k, t, p. Hence also the constant vernation in
spelling: Inns-pmck, Inns-hruck, etc. d is almost
invariably represented by i: Eng. daughter, H.G.
tockter ; Eng. deed, H.G. tat, etc.

iii. Still later and independently the spirant
th (» became d over the whole area. Eng. brother.
Germ, brvder,

* This word is interesting as a Latin word— powrftw — borrowed
at an early period in the history of both English and German, and
making the following changes exactly in the same way as the
native words.

PART n

SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS

Vm Indo-Oennanic Sounds

113. Of the sounds discussed in Chapter V. the
original Indo-Gennanic language had the following: —

A. Consonants.
1. Stops:

(a) Breathed p, ph ; t, th ; h, kh ; q, qh.
(6) Voiced, 6, hh ; d, dh ; g, gh ; g, gh.

As the history of the original breathed aspirates,
ph, th, kh, and g-A is in many respects still obscure,
these sounds will not be discussed at length here.
In Greek they were represented in the same way
as the voiced aspirates by <f>, 0, y. In Latin they
are treated as p, t, k, q. The only forms of much
importance for our purposes in which breathed
aspirates occur are some of the personal suffixes of
the verb. In every instance th is the aspirate in
question: Lat. fer-tis (§ 457), eSo-^iy-? (§ 474, I),
ola-Oa (§ 477), etc. Probable examples of breathed
aspirates in root syllables are: Lat. s-puma
(*s-poj-ma), O.E./am "foam," Skt phonos; a-'^dWo),
lAt. /alio, Eug,/all; rpixo) (^threkhd), Goth, prog-
jan "run," O.KG. drigil "slave," Eng. thrall
(borrowed from Norse : 0. Jcel. pr^ll " serf," literally
"runner"); Lat. habere, Goth, haban, Eng. have
(^khabh')\ Lat. sceliLS, Skt. skhaiati "stumbles"
(*8qhd-), O.H.G. smld, O.E. scyld " fault " (§ 103, i.).

1 10 VELARS AND LABICh VELARS § 113

The velar sounds y, qh, g, gh fall, strictly speak-
ing, into two series, the history of the consonant
when accompanied by an original slight rounding of
the lips represented by ^ being diflTerent in Greek,
the Italic and the Keltic dialects from its history
when the rounding is absent (§139). It is not
probable, however, that there were originally three
series of guttural sounds, and future discoveries may
be expected to reduce their number. Fick and
others hold that the palatal series k, kh, g, gh, were
originally not stops but spirants. Hirt {BB, xxiv.
pp. 218 ff.) argues for two original series: (1) a
labio- velar ^, g^, g/i^; (2) a guttural k, g, gh,
which in the satem languages (§ 18) ultimately
became sibilants. The velar series is represented
in the classical languages by the same sounds as
the palatals (§141*). In Greek the representation
of the labio- velar sounds is very complicated (see
S 139-141).

2. Spirants:

(a) Breathed, s.

(b) Voiced, z, w, y.

Some authorities recognise also a guttural spirant
to account for such equivalents as Skt. ha, Gk. ye ;
Skt. dham, Gk. 67<o. It is also suggested that
besides s, there was an original sh {a)} Collitz

^ CoUitz, BB, xviii. 201 ff. If this theory is correct probably
Skt kfcum-y Gk. x^^ oaght to be derived rather from an original
root with initial §k8- than from a combination with original z as
it is given by Bartholomae and Brugmann (Or, OrJ^ % 46).
Bnigmann, in the second edition of vol. i. of his Orundriss (§ 920),
finds some sort of interdental sound (>, ef, § 69) in some of Collitz's

§ 114 INDO'GERMANIC SOUNDS 1 1 1

finds this sound in Skt. tc^-ti, Zd. ^at-ti (3rd sing.),
Gk. /rrt-fo), Lat si-7M>, and possibly in Gk. /cTt-Xo9
" tame, quiet," Lat sifere, Goth. sHan " to be silent,
keep quiet"; all from an Idg. root *^ej[. From
two separate roots of identical form gh^e\, he derives
(1) Skt k^&y-ati "controls" (3rd sing.), k^a-trd-
" lordship," Zd. h^a-Jyra "kingdom," Gk. t'^0ifjbo<:
and possibly ^Odvay ; (2) Skt hyh-nd-ti " destroys,"
Zd. Tm (fem.) "misery," Gk. <^^€ta), j>0ivo), ^Oeipo),

The spirant y has to be carefully distinguished
from the consonant t-sound {, but in none of the
descendants of the original Indo-Germanic language
is the representation clearly difierent except in
Greek (5' = y, '=i). There is still greater difficulty
in distinguishing w from ^. Hence, as in most
cases there was probably no strong rubbing or
spirant sound, most philologists represent both
original sounds indifferently by ^.

3. (a) Liquids, I, r.

4. (a) Nasals, m, n, % n,

n and 7? are the nasals which occur in con-
junction with palatal and velar consonants respec-
tively (§ 76).

1 14. B. Sonants.

3. (6) Liquids, Z, r.

4. (b) Nasals, m, w, ^, 17.

5. Vowels, a, e, i, 0, u,

examples, bat recognises also sh and zh as arising in the original
language from other combinatiQns of sounds. The subject is too
intricate to be discussed here.

1 1 2 SONANTS AND DIPHTHONGS § 114 —

Manj authorities recognise a series of loDg
liquids and nasals: /, r; m, n, ^, § (cp. § 82).
z is also classified by some authorities as a sonant
as well as a consonant. Many authorities
postulate another original vowel &, &, which can
be identified as distinct from other vowels in
Armenian and is found in some words like iroai^,
Lat. potis, Sa-ae (*o/c-t-€), Lat. oc-tUurS, 5t9, Lat ovis ;
ir<0'V(o, Lat po-tu-s, which have no vowel grades
alternating between o and e}

115. C. Diphthongs.

6. The combination of a, S, 0, and 9 with j
and ^ made the following fourteen diphthongs : —

aj, 4 oj; aj^, ejf, o^; aj, 91^;

IZ. Attic Greek Alphabet and Pronimciation

116. To represent the Greek developments of
these original sounds the Attic dialect had the
following s3rmbols after 403 B.C., when the Ionic
alphabet was oflBcially introduced ^ : —

* Bartholomae, BB, xvii. pp. 91 ff. ; Bnigmann, Orundr, L'
§§ 158 ff. Meillet, however (Mimoirea, viiL pp. 153 ff.), thinks the
yariation in Armenian ia only that of the same original sound
under different conditions. Pedersen also (K.Z, 36, pp. 86 ff.)
takes this view.

' For the other Greek dialects and their alphabets see
Appendix.

§ 116 GREEK SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS 113

1. Stops:

(a) Breathed, tt, <^; t, ^; k^x^
(6) Voiced, )8; l\ 7.

2. Spirants:

(a) Breathed, 9 (o-): in conjunction with
breathed consonants and when between sonants or
finaL

(6) Voiced, o- : in conjunction with voiced con-
sonants, as in afiiwviii ( = «6-), hoa-horo^ ( = -zd-).

Greek represented j^ by F — a symbol lost in
Attic and Ionic but preserved in other dialects.
y is represented by f, which has also other values ;
{has in one or two dialects a symbol for itself;
elsewhere in some positions it disappears, in others
it becomes the spiritus asper ' (see ^ 170 ff.).

3. Liquids : X, />.

4. Nasals : fi, v, y (^il and r?).

5. Vowels : a, e, *, 0, v, 17, o).

In Attic Greek 17 represents not only original g
but also in many cases original a.

The remaining letters of the Attic alphabet —
f and y^ — represent respectively a guttural + 9 and
a labial + 9. For the other symbols of the Attic
alphabet, which have only a numerical value, see
Appendix A.

6. Diphthongs : ai, ei, 01 ; at;, et;, ov ; vu

a, 27, ^ at the end of words represent aj, aj, 5j.
Elsewhere diphthongs with a long sonant shortened
the sonant before a following consonant. Hence
only the series with a short sonant is preserved.
But in some cases we can tell by comparison with
other languages where an original diphthong with

I

1 1 4 GREEK PRONUNCIA TION § 116

a long sonant stood ; e.g. Zev^ = Skt. dydits, original
*d}jS^8; tTTTToe? = Skt dfvdis, original ^k^Ms (see
§ 181, 3).

v( is a diphthong, which apparently did not
belong to the original language, but arose in Greek
through the loss of a consonant and subsequent
contraction ; e.g. IBvla represents an older *Fi£va'Ui,
vio^ represents an original *»u-ijo-s not *w^j-o-s

Pronunciation.

117. 1. Stops. The breathed and voiced stops
Ancient and prcscnt uo diflBculty, the pronunciation
nfT!^u^ii^7t being ill the classical period approxi-
Btops. mately that of the corresponding Eng-
lish sounds. In the popular dialect y at an early
period became a spirant between vowels, and Plato
the comic poet charged Hyperboles the demagogue
(murdered 411 B.c.) with pronouncing oX/709 as
oTuo^, that is oliyos. On papyri there is often a
confusion between g- and y-sounds, as in vytrfoivi^
for vyuilvei^y but this did not occur in the speech
of educated Athenians. In modem Greek 7, S, and
fi have all become spirants ^, d, v.

The aspirates <^, 0, x ^^^^ pronounced as p\ f ,
k\ not as/, >, ch (§ 73). For otherwise we could
explain neither (a) the aspiration of tt, t, k before
the rough breathing (€<^' w, avO^ ov, oifx oiro)^), nor
(6) the representation of the Greek aspirates in old
Latin by breathed stops: e.g. Pilipus = ^t>uinro<:,
tus = Ovo^t calx = x^^*f •

118. 2. As already mentioned (§ 116, 2), 9 had

— §118 GREEK CONSONANTS 115

two values — » and z. The Greek f did not corre-
spond to the English Z but was pro- pronunciation

nounced as arf, whether it represented an ^^*
original zi- or an earlier dz- sound formed from Sj
or y, as in Z£i;9 and %v^dv (see § 144). This is
shown by the following facts : —

(a) hioahoTQ^y Oeoa-BoTo^, etc., are found some-
times written Bio^oro^, Oeo^oro^, etc., even in the
same dialect. So 'AOi^va^e is undoubtedly 'A^iyi/a?-
& " Athens- ward."

(b) V disappears before f, a-v-^rjv, a-v^cvyvvvav,
etc This could only happen if f was zd not dz,
for V remains before S, rov-Se, etc.

(c) «rf in foreign words was represented by f as
in ^Slpo'fid^ff^ = Ahura-maada (Persian deity).

At a later period the sound of ^ sank to z.
Medial -aa-' in Thucydides and the Tragic
poets was no doubt pronounced by the

^., . • i.v . and of .<r<r-, -TT-.

Athenians in the same way as -tt- m
Aristophanes, Plato, and the Orators. What the
pronunciation was, however, is not clear, but prob-
ably it was something like the breathed English
th doubled (-»-). The reason for the dififerent
spelling Trpda-a-o), Trpdrro), etc., amongst contem-
poraries in the same city is this: -tt- was the
traditional Attic spelling, which is therefore used in
everything colloquial, '<t<t- was a literary manner-
ism borrowed from the dialects of the earlier authors
who formed the model for the Athenians.^

1 According to W. F. Witton (A.J,P. xix. pp. 420 ff.), the pro-
niinciation ef Ionic ffa, representing io, Tj^ (§ 197), was § (ah), of ^,
representing 71, Sj^ ^ (zh), A somewhat similar view is held by
LagercrantE {Zur grieeh. LmUgesckiehte, pp. 107, 147).

116 GREEK LIQUIDS^ NASALS, VOWELS §119

119. 3. p was a dental r. The spirUus asper,
Pronmiciation ^hich is written with /), indicates that

°'^ it was breathed not voiced. But on
inscriptions this breathing is found, with certainty,
only once — PHOFAIDI (from Cotcjtb) = poalai.

120. 4. fjL was apparently a weak sound before
Pronnnciatioii s^me consonauts, as on old vase-inscrip-

vvfufyrf) appear.

The pronunciation of -yv in yiyvofiai, etc., is
uncertain, but later the 7-sound disappeared, as is
shown by yivofiai,

121. 5. a was pronounced as oA. € was a

close vowel approaching i\ this is shown

Prontmciatlon , . ^ ^\, • . ,

of the vowels, by the contraction of 6€ into et as in

Of A. C. O. _ , _

^CKelre, That this vowel was not so
close in the original language is shown by the
contraction of the augment with € into 97 ; thus € 4-
€G0Lov becomes fjaOiov not ^elaOiov. o wa^ also a
close sound approaching 1^ ( = 00), whence the con-
traction of 00 into 01; as in hrjkovTet but it had once
been more open, as is shown by the contraction
with the augment into a> : eS^eXoi/ not *ou<^eXoi/.
In Attic V became at an early period ii; hence
Attic Greek had, like French, to repre-
sent a pure tt-sound by on (ov). In
the diphthongs av, ev, ov, however, v retained its
• original value of u, n was an open

Ofijand... ^ , . - /^N 1 .. 5

sound, as is shown (1) by its often
representing the a of other dialects, as S^/ao9 =
Doric Bdfjbo^ ; (2) by the fact that ea contracts to
V (t^xi? = T€tj(€a) ; and (3) by its representing the

— § 122 GREEK DIPHTHONGS 1 1 7

cry of the sheep in the comic poets (o S* rihlQio^
&am'€p wpofiaTOp firj firj Xeytap fiahU^eC). to was
also an open sound.

122. 6. In €t and ov two different values have
to be distinguished: (1) the original or

_. ° , ^ ^ . ° . Proper and im-

proper diphthongs €i and ov as in proper diph-

/ c^/ 7rt\ i_ • j« i_ tl>oiig8- Pro-

XetTTO), (nrovoTj ; (2) the improper diph- wmdatioii of «
thongs which are the result of contrac-
tion, <f>iXelT€, Srj\ovT€, or of compensatory lengthen-
ing (§217 ff.), <f>a6iv6^ for ^(fyaeaifo^, iiTTrov^ for
rTTTToi/?. In the Attic inscriptions of the early period
such words as Wttco and awovBi] are always written
with the diphthong, while the vowel sound of the
improper diphthongs is represented by e and o only,
not €t and ov. Whether these two classes of sounds
were still distinguished at the end of the fifth
century B.C., or whether both proper and improper
diphthongs were already pronounced as close e and u
respectively is much disputed.^

In the diphthongs ai, 64, ot, vt there was a
constant tendency to drop the consonantal t before
vowels. Thus tA? fnii^aea^ is cited by a gram-
marian from Thuc. viii 8; we have HiBtoryofot,
irXeov as well as irXelov ; itogIv as well *'• *'' *''•
as iroielv and 0I09 toaoOto?, etc., scanned with a
short first syllable; in the fourth century B.C.
vlo^ is written almost uniformly v6% though v is
still scanned as long.^

In the diphthongs ^, 17, ^, which were always
written in ancient times with e on the line — ^AI,

» Blass', § 10. Brugmann, Or, Gr.* p. 28.
= B1ms», § 14.

118 LA TIN SOUNDS AND SYMBOLS § 122 —

HI, ni — the t ceased bj the second century b.g. to
be sounded, ri had apparently become

Pronunciation _ % ,. «n i

and hiBtory of a closc ^ much earlier. The modem
*'''** method of writing these diphthongs

begins with manuscripts of the twelfth century of

Z. Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation

123. To represent the Italic development of the
The Latin Original Indo- Germanic sounds Latin
alphabet. ^^ ^^ following symbols : —

1. Stops:

(a) Breathed, p ; t; c, k, q.

(b) Voiced, i; d; g,

2. Spirants:

(a) Breathed,/; s; h,

(6) Voiced, t; ( = ?^), i, sometimes written j

3. Liquids, /, r.

4. Nasals, m, n.

5. Vowels, a, «, i, 0, u.

y and z were introduced from Greek in Cicero's
time, y to represent v = u, z to represent f. The
symbol for z had existed in the original Soman
jphabet, which was borrowed from the Western
Greek alphabet, but it had been dropped when the
old Latin sound it represented disappeared (§ 125).
X is merely the combination Jcs.

^ Blaas', §13.

§ 124 LA TIN PRONUNCIA TION 1 1 9

6. Diphthongs ai, ei, oi ; an, eu, ou.

These forms are the forms of the earliest in-
scriptions. In the Aagustan period ai was repre-
sented mostly by ae, ei by I, oi hy U and oe ; au
remained except in the vulgar dialect, where it
appeared as d; original eu appears only once in
a doabtful fragment, becoming elsewhere always ou
even in the earliest records. Before the Augustan
period ou had become u (§ 179).

The Indo-Germanic diphthongs with long sonant
have all passed into other sounds (§ 181).

Of later origin are the diphthongs eu and ui in
seu, neuter, ctd.

Pronunciation.

124. 1. Stops.

p and 6 were pronounced as in English, d was
dental, not alveolar like English d

(/» rt\ T • 1 1 1 1 i» -Ancient and

§ 68). In pronouncmg t the blade ot modern pronun-
, ^ , 1 , , , 1 ciaUon of stops.

the tongue touched both teeth and
gums. Hence at all periods of the language tl had
a tendency to change into d, there being an almost
inappreciable difference between them when t was
pronounced a little farther back and c a little farther
forward in approximating to the position for L c
and k were pronounced alike, c having except in
& few words taken the place of k (Appendix, § 607).
H and ci never became a sibilant as in the English
sedition, patrician, but were pronounced separately.
e was never pronounced as 8, as in English cirde.
With very rare exceptions q occurred only along
with u, g was always a genuine stop, never the

120 LATIN SPIRANTS §124 —

affricate j as in gUbt, etc. In some of the other
dialects of Italy these voiced sounds seem to have
been pronounced almost as breathed sounds.

125. 2. /was pronoimced as in English, h
Pronunciation was uot 80 stroug probably as the
Stin^^Sntef corresponding English sound but rather,
AKs,v,i(f), like the Greek *, represented a breath.
Later it entirely disappeared. Hence the late forms
anser, arena for earlier ^hanser (not found in the
literature), harma.

s was always breathed. It never had the value
of z. When combined with a voiced consonant,
the consonant became breathed. Thus a Boman
said aps'tineo even when he wrote oJs-. In old
Latin there was a voiced s ( = z), which between
450 and 350 B.a changed into r, whence laborem
(ace.) for older Idbosem, Furius for Fusius, etc.

V, which was the only symbol the Bomans
had for both the vowel u and the consonant %
was, when consonant, pronounced probably not so
strongly as the English w^ but more as the
French <m in oui. In the same way i had both
the vowel and the consonant value in ancient
Bome ; j^ is a modem improvement on the Boman
alphabet The consonant value of % was that of
the English y.

The Bomans objected to the combinations uu
and ii. Hence they kept servos not seruuSf for the
nominative sing.; cum, quom or even qum not
quum ; the genitive singular of nouns in -itis in
the best period was always contracted : flum, etc. ;
the nominative plural of such words is found on

— § 127 LATIN LIQUIDS AND NASALS 121

inscriptions in -iei. Sometimes where i was written,
yi was pronounced, as in ahiciJt = aiyicU,

1 26. 3. I was pronounced by placing the tongue
against the teeth and gums; r was The Latin
alveolar and strongly trilled in any uqaws.
position in the word.

127. 4. m at the beginning of a word was pro-
nounced as in English : n was dental.

^ . - « ,, , , 11^ Pronunciation

n at the end of a syllable and before «nd history of

, " the Latin nanals.

c, K, q, g was guttural n and pronounced
like English rig; thus indpit was pronounced
ingkipit and so on. m and n in all other cases at
the end of a syllable or a word became a very
weak sound, and consequently in the inscriptions
is represented indifferently by either m or n. In
modem books the nasal is generally assimilated to
the following consonant; m is written before the
labial p, n before the dental d, and so on. But
the Somans themselves wrote Ganpani as well as
Campani, tuenidam as well as tuendam. Before A,
J, jf, and vowels, m disappeared entirely. Hence
the form co of the preposition com (cum) in cohibere,
coicere, coventio, coadum, coerceo, coire, etc. ; cp. also
circu-eo, n disappeared before s. Thus Cicero
preferred megalesia to m^gcUensia, etc.; cosol for
consul is very frequent on inscriptions. The nasal
was also left unwritten before gn, i-gnotus, co-
gnomen}

1 Seelmann, AuMpraehe des LaUin^ pp. 268 ff. How far e and
o were nasalised (as in French e^i, on) when n was not written is
uncertain. Some consider the pronunciation of ignotua to have
been ingnolus, and this is probably correct.

122 LATIN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS § 128 —

128. 5. Seelmann^ considers that old Latin
The Latin resembled English in a tendency to
\T^\ ?; 5/i make its simple vowels into diphthongs
*• and in the manner in which it produced

its vowel sounds generally.

In the earlier period tf was apparently a more
open sound than d, but in the Augustan period of
I^tin the two sounds seem to have been quite
similar, and pronounced like the vowel sounds in
English (XAd / * Later the sound approached more
closely to e. In Latin e was an open, I a close
sound, Latin in this respect showing the exact
reverse of Greek. ^ waa also an open sound re-
sembling the sound in English mm, thichf and
hence in the Romance languages has been exten-
sively confused with t; hence too final ^ being
unaccented changes to ?. i was a close sound as
in English moijchvM. S and it were open, 0 and w
close sounds, tf and U were very similar in sound
and there is a constant change of d* to '^ in the
later Empire. . The sound il appeared in those
words where i or i^ is written indifferently, as in
optimvs, optumvs, etc.

129. 6. ai had become ae in writing by 100 B.C.,
though even in Cicero's time the pro-

The Latin diph- *? ^. . - , ^ .

tiiongs, ai, ei, oi, nunciatiou of the second component of
att, eu. ott. ^^^ diphthong was that of a very open

i, ae gradually approached nearer and nearer to
e, but did not become identical with it till the fifth

^ Ausspradie des Latein^ pp. 168 ff.

* PrtmuneUUion of Laiin in the Augustan Period (a small pam-
phlet published by the Cambridge Philological Society), p. 2.
' Seelmann, p. 198.

— § 130 HISTORY OF SOUNDS 123

century a.d.^ d became a monophthong very early,
and is found represented by e, «i, and i; i finally
prevailed, oi became oe about the same time as ai
became (u. Later it passed into w, perhaps through the
intermediate stage of 6e, au had a tendency towards
a long 0 sound, as in the Clodius of the popular
speech for the CUmdius of the upper classes, eu,
as already mentioned, has' almost disappeared in the
earliest remnants of Latin ; it exists by contraction
iu a few words, as neu, etc., and was imdoubtedly
pronounced eh-db? ou, which is written till after
100 B.C., was pronounced u. ui was never com-
monly recognised by the Romans as a diphthong.'
It occurs only by contraction in a few forms, cui,
etc.

XI. History of the original Indo-Oermamc
Sounds in Greek and Latin

130. I. Stops.

A. Labial Stops.

Indo-G. ^ = Skt p, Gk. tt, Lat. p, Eng. /, v
( = earlier h) medially under certain conditions,
Letto-Slavonic p.

In Keltic p disappears entirely except before
another consonant, when it becomes a spirant.

va-Hip : Lat. pa-ter : Eng. faiher

vav-pos : Lat. pau-cus : Eng. few

lir-rd : Lat. sep-tem : Eng. seven (Groth. sibun)

^ Seelmann, p. 224.

* Pranuneiaium of Latin (C.P.S.), p. 3. Seelmann, p. 228.
' Seelmann, p. 222. For further details on pronunciation, see
Lindsay, L.L. chap. ii.

124 INDO'GERMANIC LABIALS §130 —

For 7r = original ^ see under D (§ 139).
In English / sometimes represents not only
English /= originally but also k (j») and t, as in

original fc and tyj^^^ Goth. jHw^, Lat. qtlOttUOT ; JUe,

German fliehen, is supposed to come from a root
*tle]iJc-, Goth. Miuhan.

131. Indo-G. 6 = Skt. ft, Gk. /8, Lat ft, Keltic 6,
Eng. p, Letto-Slav. 6.

This sound is very rare in all the Indo-6.
languages (§100 note),

fidK-Tpoy : Lat. bac-ulum : "Rng.peg (M.E. pegge)
fidp-Pap-O'S : Lat. bal-bu-s

Lat. lub-rieus : £ng. slippery (§ 100, iii.)^

For /8 = original cf^ see under D (§ 140).

132. Indo-G. bh = Skt bh, Gk. <^, Lat / initially,
b medially, Kelt 6, Eng. b, Letto-Slav. 6.

^p<a : IsLfero : Eng. bear

tppd'TTip : Lat./ria-^ : Eng. brother
y6fi-tpo-s : Eng. comb. Germ, ibamm

d/i^ : Lat. amb-itu-s : 0. Eng. yjiib "round"

For ^ = original g^h see under D (§ 141).

B. Dental Stops.

133. Indo-G. t = Skt t, Gk. t, Lat t, Kelt ^,
Eng. th (d medially under certain conditions), Letto-
Slav. t

TVUf^-yXbHTaOS

Lat tenu-ia

: Eng. thin

rip-e-rpo-y

Lat ter-e-bra

: Eng. thriU*

ff>pd'T7ip

ULfrater

: Eng. &n>-t/^

drrl

Lat anU

: Eng. €md

^ For other examples see K. F. Johansson, K.Z. 36, pp. 342 ff.
* The word originaUy meant ** to pierce " ; the noun= '* hole "
is preserved in nos-lril.

— §134 IN DO-GERMANIC DENTALS 125

Kkv'Tb't : Lat in-du-tu-a : Eng. loud (O.K hludy

""*• (2) SJJS'} -^^m^ : E„g. (1) »«.«^

For Greek t = original jV see under D (§ 139).

Greek r before t sometimes remains, some-
Treatment of
times becomes a. The following are the original h in

principal cases, r remains in all Greek

dialects (a) after o-, iriart^, (6) at the beginning of

words, Tto-t9. T in the middle of words before l

followed by another vowel becomes a in all dialects,

cp. irXovauy; with ttXoOto?. Forms like oTpartd,

iajdtiTLr), etc., retain -t- on the analogy of orpaTo^i

iaxdrrj, eta At the end of words the forms would

originally depend on the initial sound of the next

word. Attic ridi/o-t, ^ipovat are the forms before

an initial vowel, Doric riOTjriy <f>€povTi the forms before

an initial consonant The history of 0€<ri(;, iroat^ for

*5€-Ti-9, ^iro-Tt'^ (Lsktpotis) is stUl matter of dispute.^

In Latin tl very early became cZ, periclum, etc.
(§ 124).

134. Indo-G. rf = Skt d, Gk. S, Lat. d, Kelt, d,
Eng. t, Letto-Slav. d.

Gk. Lat. Eng.

diktf : dito : tivo

SHK-rv-fu : dieo (older deico) : teach (O.E. Ueeean), token

(§ 105)
6'd<i6t : <2»» (weak stem =Vn/-) : ^00^ (O.E. tsp from *ton)>)
KCipS'la : cor{d) : A«art

^ Cp. § 167 and note.

' This explanation is simpler than Eretschmer's {K. Z, 30,
p. 589), which was given in the first edition. It is due partly to
Ooidanich {I eomtinuaiofri elleniei di tl indo-europeo^ Salerno, 1893),
partly to Bmgmann in his review of G. {Indog, Anz. v. pp. 50 ff.),
and in BeriekU d. k, s, G, d. W, 1895. Gp. also Kretschmer, Einl,
p. 278, n. 2.

126 HISTOR Y OF SOUNDS § 134 —

For Greek 8 = original ^ see under D (§ 140).

In a few Latin words initial d before a vowel
Latin i«ori. ^^^ medial A between vowels become Z,

**°^''- lacruma, Sdxpv; odor, but oleo; sedeo,
but solium, etc. This happens also to a certain
extent in Sanskrit The change is an easy one,
the only diflference between d and I being that
in pronouncing I the breath escapes at one or both
sides of the tongue, while in pronouncing d the
mouth passage is entirely closed, though the tongue
is otherwise in the same position as for 1}

135. Indo-G. dh = Skt dh, Gk. 0, Lat / (in-
itially), b and d (medially), Kelt, d, Eng. d, Letto-
Slav. d.

: Lat. /orou { = *dhycrans) : Eng. door (O.E. duru, dyre)
i-Brj-K-a I Lat fi-c-i : Eng. do

i-fwd'pd-s : Lat. ruber (atem rub-ro-) : Eng. rvMy^ red
M-ap : Lat. ub-er : Eng. vdder (O.E. fbder)

Homeric fUiraos ( = ^fieS-jfi-s) : Lat. med-ius : Eng. middle
Homeric ^Beos : Lat viduM : Eng. widow, etc. (§ 21)

For Gk. ^ = original g^h see under D (§ 141).
In Latin h appears for Indo-G. dh before and
oriff. «a«Lat. ^fter original r, before /, and possibly
^""^^ after w; in all other cases Indo-G. dh
probably changed medially to d.

In Latin / sometimes appears to represent

orig. dk not« original dh in the middle of words, as

Lat/medi*uy. ^ rufus, which is akin to ruber. But

rw/i« is borrowed from some one of the other Italic

dialects in which dh was regularly represented by /.

^ The variation between / and d seems to mark a dialectic
difference (Conway, IndogerTnaniache Forsckunffeji, vol. LL pp. 157 ff.).

— § 136 INDO-GERMANIC PALA TALS 127

C. Palatal Stops.

136. Indo-G. A = Skt. f (Zend s), Gk. k, Lat c,
Kelt, c, Eng. A (but see § 100, L), medially under
certain conditions g^ Letto-Slav. sz in Lithuanian
(pronounced sA), s in Lettic and Slavonic.

It will be observed that while Greek, Latin, and

Keltic keep the hard ft-sound (which is T^e two wnds

represented in English by A according tS^'^^^t

to the regular change under Grimm's *"°°-

Law), the Aryan and Letto- Slavonic languages

change it to some form of s. In consequence,

these languages throw valuable light upon the

nature of the ^- sound in other languages where

*> 9^ gK and y, (^, jA have been fused together and

are represented by the same symbol. The Italic

dialects and those branches of the Keltic languages

which represent original velars by labials (§15) also

help us to ascertain the nature of the original

gutturals. It is customary to represent a guttural,

the nature of which (owing to the lack of cognates

in other languages) it has been found impossible to

determine, by the ordinary guttural symbols h, g, gh

without any distinguishing mark.

Skt Gk. Lat Eng.

Khipia : di-'no : Uan{0.^, hlcenan, infinitive)

di-vu8 : lowmLud-loWtetc.iO.TLhlcew)

: Lith. 8zlp-ti (to lean)

fv^(n) : K^fOF : eanis^ : ?Kni7id (O.E. hund)

da^ : 84Ka : decern : ten(Goth.,taihun=*tehn,%liS)

yuva-^d-s : Ml-k-wOos : JuveTi-cu-s : young (§ 104)

^ Canis was perhaps originally the feminine form (Schmidt,
Pluralbiidungen d, Indog, neutra, pp. 61, 62 n.) ; cp. vulpes below
(§ 139, c).

1 28 HISTOR Y OF SOUNDS § 136

Exception.

Owing to the strong labial sound ^ which
originally followed, Indo-G. A in ^&c^b is repre-
sented in Greek by tt in Xmro^, So too in the
word quoted by Pliny from Gallic epo-redia, and
in the tutelary deity of horses Epona, a borrowed
word in Latin. The aspirate in fTTTro?, which is
not original, since the Skt. form is dgvas, the Latin
equos, was possibly produced by an early fusion of
the article o with the initial vowel.^

137. Indo-G. ff = Skt. j (Zend 2), Gk. 7, Lat g,
Kelt, g, Eng. k, Letto-Slav. S (in Lith.), z (in Lettic
and Slavonic).

As Skt. /represents not only^ but also (^ (g^) before
original palatal vowels, the Zend and Letto-Slavonic
show best the nature of any ^-sound.

Zend 6k. Lat. Eng.

yi-yifib'ffKia : [g)no-8eo : know

(Lith. HnaH)

zan^ur famUy") :'^;'' | : ^^^ ) : kin

^ yl-yP'O/xaij gi-gn-oj

mnva ( "knees," pi. ):y6rv : genu : knee

(Goth, kniu)

d-fii\y-w : mu/gf-«-o(=*m/^-) : milk

(Lith. mUht)

1 38. Indo-G. ^A = Skt h (Zend z) ; Gk. ^ ; Lat.
initially h, medially h and g (when following n) or
lost altogether ; Kelt, g ; Eng. g, y (later) ; Letto-
Slav. i (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic).

^ Baonack, Studien^ i. pp. 240 ff. The c, however, in the root
syllable is also irregular, so that Kretschmer may be right
{Eivdeitung, p. 248) in supposing the word borrowed originally
from Thrace.

§ 138 INDChGERMANIC PALA TALS

129

From this it will be seen that in Zend, Keltic,
Germanic, and Letto-Slavpnic there is no longer any
distinction kept up between the original aspirated
and unaspirated voiced sounds.

Skt

himd-

Gk.

Lat.

£ng.

X^^

: anser (§ 125)

igoose{O.IL,0.ga'n8)
: Lith. Sqsis

rx^ifuiiP \

1 Bl^ff-YiUOS 1

, J r
• Xx^fiapoi

: hiempa {p euphonic)

igimmer^

^X^f^P^ ^

humus ^

Xdfial

: " homo (O.L. hemoV

guma)

. =terrae JUius) J

: Lith. hno-gits

Xd-ffKuf

^ chi'sco ^
• \hUire\

(yawn (O.E. gani-
' \ an and ginan)

«X«'^( = f6xoO

: veh-o

^ f weigh

' \ toain (0. E. vxegn)
: Lith. veSu

6-fux-^'<a '

: mingo

: O.E. mlgan (Goth.
77iaiAs<tts" urine")

Exception.

Apparently y^eco (x^F-coy ex^va) must be con-
nected with Latin /undo, O.K geotan, dial, gowt =
"sluice" in Lincolnshire (Goth, giutan), where /
represents gh, and as yet no satisfactory explanation

^ Dialectic and Scandinavians a lamb that has lived through
one ¥dnter. Wether has a similar meaning, but comes from the
same root as troif Lat vetus, vitulus (?), and so "yearling." Cp.
the origin of bimus in lAtin =bi-himus " two winters old."

* This word is not connected with ^w, which is in no way
related to Lat. veho. The aorist i-trx-o-v shows that the root of
f^w is *9e§h-. For the change of meaning in E. weigh cp. Airoi,
which is also used of weighing.

' For a similar root see under 8h and Feist, Orundrisa d, goti-
gehen Etymologies s.y. maihstus,

K

130 INDO-GERMANIC VELARS §138

has been given of this irregularity.^ Other words
with initial / interchanging with A, as folns or IvoVm
" vegetable," fariolus or hariohis, are explained by
the hypothesis that the forms with /, as rufus
(§ 135), are not Latin but Sabine.

h for original gh when between vowels or before j
often disappears in Latin ; nemo = ^ne-hemo, nil =
nihil. So also mdior from ^mahjpr ; aio from
*ahjp or *dhjft ; meio from *mejji0?

D. Velar Stops.

139. Under this heading come two series of
sounds — the labialised and unlabialised velars —
which are on the whole clearly distinguished by
Greek, by the Oscan and Umbrian dialects of Italy,
indo-Gor. Ian- ^y Wclsh, and to somc extent by
St'?fwo ^up" Latin and Germanic, while the Letto-
men?''^of*Th^ Slavouic and Aryan fail to make any
velars. distinction. Unfortunately the lan-

guages which separate the two series of velars
confuse the unlabialised velars with the palatals
(§ 141*). The ?f -sound which followed the velar
in the labialised series and caused the change in
the mouth position which resulted in labialisation
must have been very slight, as its combination with
the guttural did not make strong position. Cp.
iTTTTO^ = *iky>os with eirofiai = ^seq^o-mai. Both are

1 Buck {A,J.P. xi. pp. 216 ff.) holds thsit fin /undo is due to
the u following. It is too common a word, he says, to be Sabine.
But English take is even more common and yet is Danish (§ 10).

2 Brugmann, Grundr. i.^ § 767, 2.

— §139 LABIALISED VELARS 131

represented in Latin by g^. The reason for the
parting of the Indo-G. languages into two groups
in this matter remains still to be discovered.^ Even
languages which follow the same line of develop-
ment do not all show this jf-sound in the same
words. Even different dialects of the same language
disagree. Thus the common Gk. form is Trorepo?,
the Ionic Korepof; ; to Attic Tt9 the equivalent form
in Thessalian is kl<;J^

Indo-G. qV = Skt k, c ; Gk. ir, r, k\ Lat. qu, c
(Oscan and Umbrian p) ; Kelt. Irish, etc., c, Welsh,
etc., p (§ 15, vi); Eng. hw (written wh), h, and,
medially under certain conditions, g ; Letto-Slav. k,
retained in lith., but passing into other sounds in
Slavonic.

(a) Before o-vowels, nasals, and liquids whether
sonant or consonant * : Gk. ir ; Lat, qu (c).

Gk. Lat. Eng.

irod-air6-s : quod : what

{saf&.x^nq^O'S)

hr-o-fuu : seqii-o-r : see ^ (Goth, saxhwan^ in-

finitive)

ymlir'ia : linqu-o : 0.£. lihan^ (Goth, lei-

hwan)

iw-yer-c : m-agc-«(**say,"imperat.) : «ay (O.E. aeegan for

{=z*en-seqy''e) ^sagyan)

1 Brugm. Qrundr, i.* §§ 630 ff. ; Gr. Gr.^ §§ 90 ff.

' Morphologische UntersuchuTigen, vol. v. p. 63 note. More
faUy Bezzenberger, JBB, xvi. pp. 234 £f., and Bechtel, Die Haupt-
probleme der indogermanischen Lauilehre, pp. 338 £f.

» Brugm. Grundr, i. § 427 ; Or. Gr.^ § 36.

* = ** follow with the eye." Wiedemann, I,F, i p. 257, denies
the identity of sei with sequor.

* Hence are derived loan and lend.

1 34 VA/l YING REPRESENTA TION § 140 —

Gk.

Lat. Eng.

/5A0a^"pig"

: : calf, orig.

J SeX^iJf and «oX06f •'womb"

: vulva (for *volba form •g»o/W-

1 d-3eX^6f /ra^ vJUrinvA

by assimilation,

\

cp. 189, Excep. 2)

Arcadian —

dAXai=/3(iXXai

: vol-are : Iquail^

Arcadian or Macedonian —

(caasative quell)

S4pe$po^ = ^padpow

: vor-are

Compare also Delphian oBekof; with Attic 6/36k6^,
The form o/SeT^^o^ has arisen from a confusion between
the other two. Cp. also Doric B'^Xofmi, Locrian
BeiKofiaVf Thessalian fiiXKofjMi, Boeotian fieiKofiai
with Attic fiovXofiai (^ = *fi6X-vO'fiai), Lesbian
fioWofiai, Doric fidoXofiat, Arcadian fioKofjLav}

(c) In Greek, when js^ is accompanied by v we
find it represented by 7, as in yvvq contrasted with
Boeotian fiavd.

Exception, fi before t.

/Woi : lAt. vivos : Eng. <yttic^ (Goth. giMS " living ") *

141. Indo-G. (jrJ^A = Skt. gh, h; Gr. ^, ^, x>
Lat. A, / g initially, 6, gu, v medially, according to
the character of the neighbouring sound ; Kelt, b, g ;
Eng. w, g, or lost ; Letto-Slav. g, with later changes
in Slavonic.

(a) Before 0- vowels and nasals and liquids
whether sonant or consonant, in Greek ^ :

^ For the change of meaning O.K cwelan *'die,** cp. Lithuanian
g6Ui "pierce," gUlia "it hurts" used of violent pain.

2 G. Meyer, Or. (7r.*§ 194. ^oOXofuu may = *^oX-f o-fMii accord-
ing to J. Schmidt, K.Z. 32, p. 385.

• The same root is found in Greek also with 8 in the Heraclean
(§ 638) ^ir56diWjc6ra = ^/A/3e/3t(i;«r^a, and possibly in Siaira "manner
of life."

— §141* OF LABIALISED VELARS 135

ve^p6f : Lat (dialectic) nebrundines, pi. : Mid. £. nere ^ (borrowed
„ (Praenestine) ne/rones ,, from Scandinayian)

W0O (ace. **snow"): Lat. (nivem : Eng. snow^
( ningtiU

(b) Before «- vowels, in Greek 0 :

Skt. gharmd' : OtptiMi : Lat. /annus : Eng. %carm

Skt. ^Jhan : ^cfvw ( = Vev-iw) : Lat. -/cTwfo

For a similar change within the same word
compare Oeivo} with ^01/09 and <^aT6f;^*(f^knt6s?
Analogy sometimes causes irregularities as i-Oavov
= ^S-ff^hnn- where ^ might be expected. So also
i/6t^6t for the regular \eiOei.

(c) In combination with 1;, jJ^A appears in
Greek as ^ •

Aaxi^ : Lat. levia : ? Eng. %^ (adj.)

141* The velars which are not labialised cannot
be distinguished in the languages with which we
are concerned from the palatal series (§139). As
already explained (§ 136), the palatals are best dis-
tinguished from unlabialised velars in the Aryan
and Letto-Slavonic languages.

^ The latter part of kid-iiey represents the same word, being a
corruption of riert or neer ; kid- is a corruption of an old word
quUh " the beUy." iiere goes back to a primitive iorm *ne2^hron,

^ The English snow and Gothic snaixos ( = Idg. *8^ioi2^h6-a)
exemplify Sievers* law (P. u, B. Beitrage^ v. p. 149), according to
which a primitive Germanic 7 ( = Idg. gh, or k according to Vemer's
law) disappeared before to except when w was followed by u^ as in
Goth, mojgus "servant," but fem. ma%oi (Idg. *maq^t, Celtic Mac =
" son," in proper names).

' ipardt in the compound fivX-ff^ros " mill-ground " shows the
meaning of d€l^w (jAvXtj^tdjov 6X<I>Itov, Od, ii. 355). The scholiast
on Apoll. Rhodius, i. 1073, where the word also occurs, says toO
AXcipov ToO ^6 /JL^Xris T€0Xafi4vov iv rf dXijOeaBai.

136 UNLABIALISED VELARS §141*

The unlabialised velars are 3^, j, gfA.

L Indo-G. q = Gk /c ; Lat c ; Eng. h ov g (by
Vemer's law).

Gk.

Lat.

Eng.

KOLpfrin

: carpd (verb)

: Jiarvest

KoKwvin

: collis ( = '*ea'n%-$)

: O.E.A«iZ;"rook"

Ktipta

: caro" flesh ">

: i shear
{share

ii. Indo-G. g' = Gk. 7, Lat. ^r, Eng. k.

6k. Lat Eng.

(<r)T^<i) : fegro : ^Ao^ (O.E. >eeean;

Scotch thak)
y4pwos : grus : crane

y\oi6s : gluten {u=<H,% 176) : elay

iii. Indo-G. tfA = Gk. j(^ ; Lat. A, g before r and Z ;
Eng. g.

Gk. Lat. Eng.

Xapddvta : j pre-hendo : get (not nasalised)

\praeda { = *prai-hedtiy
O, lAt, praida)
: glSber : glad*

In Latin g appears before r in gradior (Groth.
grids " step," Skt gfdhyati " struts after "), from a
root ^ghredh'.

The following table, adapted from Bezzenberger
{BB, xvi. p. 259) and Brugmann (Orundriss, 1} pp.
542, 569, 584) will help to make clear the ex-
tremely complicated relations of the gutturals : —

^ Caro meant originally ^'a portion," next "a portion (of flesh,
etc) at a sacrifice," and finally ** flesh " generally. The history of
the word is shown by the Umbrian dialect where the verb survives,
Umb. kartu " distrihiito." The English word comes from a form
of the root with initial s- ; cp. or^oi, tego, below.

* The English glad had originally the same meaning as glaber,
cp. German gl^Utj and for its history see N. E.D. s,v.

1

t

CSi

X

©4

^

^

C9i

1

5S

6i

^

C5»

-=»

.o

>«

1

%.

'Ai

a.

«J

a.

1

{ Series.

•s

•i

Ch

«5»

H

-s

5>»

5jj

tes

«•

«fc

f-

5»

Css

5»

^

'^

^

^

w

w

w

W

O

i

•54

1

1

»

N

H

-^i

»<

^

^

5Ji

<c»»

•'-*

t<

()

f-

&>

&>

^

C»>

-42

•:«

as

a

.3

•9

3

i

i

o

Note. — ^The double and triple representation of the q and q'^
aeries in Aryan and Slavonic arises from the palatalisation of these
sounds by palatal sounds following them. The thick horizontal
lines separate the satem languages (§ 18) above the line from the
etfUum languages below. The perpendicular continuous and dotted
thick lines indicate the greater or less degree of separation between
two adjacent series.

138 INDO-GERMANIC SIBILANTS §142

II. Spirants.

142. Indo-G. s = ^t. s, « ( = sA); 6k. <r, 9, '
(initially before sonants or 2^ or j), or lost (medially
between vowels and by assimilation) ; Lat s, r (be-
tween vowels) and lost (by assimilation) ; Kelt, s, in
certain positions lost; Eng. s and r according to
Verner's law (§ 104) ; Letto-Slav. 5 appearing some-
times as sz in Lith. and ch in Slavonic.

s initially and medially in combination with

breathed stops or .«? remains :

6k. Lat. Eng.

awalpta ; sper-no 9pur-7i *

spur
cri^ia : Hn-stig-are : a^tc^* "pierce"

So also /3d'(TK<o, Horn, hrea-fn, €<m ; Lat. pa-sco,
eS'sem, est

Final -s remains :

Gk.

Lat.

oZ«ro-s

: vicu-8

yiif-ot

: gen-iis

etris

sits

The Greek spiritus asper * stands for

Gk.

Lat.

Enjf.

(1) s- 4X-t

:

sal

: sal't

( t-v-fu

:

se-ro

: sow

- { = *n-8e-mi)

( = *«.s.eO

. ^-/M

sg'ineii

: see-d (Goth. 8i]>s)

fl^ofiai

sed-eo

: 5?:^

{ = *sed-i-)

rjy-^ofiai

:

sag-ire

: seek

^ The meaning of the verb would be originally "kick with the
foot " ; Latin and English have given it a metaphorical meaning.
Another metaphorical sense "track out" is developed in the
German spilren, and Scotch speir ( = ask), O.E. spyrian.

(142 INDO'GERMANIC SPIRANTS 139

Gk.

Lat. Eng.

(2) «w- ^<>^

: suavis : sweet

(*gi(ad-u8)

{ = *8uad-v-i8)

Idpiit

: sudor : sweat

( = *s»id')

{ = *si^6r,%179)

Ihrrot

: sani-nua : M.E. swiff n

(weakest form of root

{ = *8ifep-no-Sf §201)

•«j^, § 253)

(3) si- O^fiM

: sno (verb) : sew

( = •«,•«.)

( = *siu-id)

The rough breathing which should have repre-
sented original s between vowels in Greek soon
ceased to be sounded; hence Gk. -<r- between
vowels entirely disappears.^ In Latin -s- between
vowels becomes -r-.

yhc-ot : Lat. geiier-is
( = *yiv€<r-<n) ,( = *genea-es)

tiv-6s^ : Lat. mUr-is : O.E. mt2,«
( = *miis-08, gen. ) ( = ^mUs-es)

Homeric rd-wp : Lat. is-td-rum : O.E. j)d-ra
( = *td-sd7nj gen. pi. fem.
of article)

For changes brought about by assimilation see
under Combinations of Sounds (§§188 fF.).

Medial -<r- is sometimes restored by the force
of analogy; hence eKv-tT-a because of influence of
e-Koyft-a. So modern Greek gives analogy.
^epea-ai, 2nd sing, middle, on the analogy of
it>€pofiai and <f)ip€Tai (cp. § 48).^

The reason for the appearance in Latin of s in a

' In Attic and some other dialects the rough breathing which
represents medial -(t- is often transferred to the beginning of the
word : eiJw from *d^w, ion ** morning" from *dv<rJn, Homeric ijt&s.

2 For u see § 227.

' Even in classical Greek -a- had been restored in verbs in
'fu. Yet Sophocles {Eleetra^ 144) has ^0/ei like the thematic verbs.

UO INDO-GERMANIC S AND Z §142

few words between two vowels, miser, nasus, etc.,
is not yet absolutely certain.^

143. Indo-G. z does not require much discussion.
Ti«itment of I^ apparently occurred originally only
indo^.*. before voiced stops. It is represented
in Greek by a before fi and 7 as afiivvvfii, irpia-
yv<: (a dialectic form = irpeafiv^) ; f as already
mentioned (§ 118) represents original zd. In
Latin z disappeared before d and probably became
r before g (mergo). In English the voiced stops
have become breathed and consequently z has
become s in combination with them.

In the classical languages the voiced aspirates
became breathed aspirates and ultimately, in Italic,
spirants ; hence we expect z, in all cases, to become
s. In Germanic, as the voiced aspirates lost their
aspiration, z remained and ultimately in some cases
became r, in others disappeared.

ri-«2 . sido \

nidiiaf : Eng. nest
{=:*ni-zd'Os)
0^>s : Goth, asts

Zend mizda : fu<rd6s : lAt.lmiles^ : "Kng, meed {O.E. med)

^ The material has been carefully collected by R. S. Conway,
Vemer's Law in Italy^ 1887. See also Lindsay, L.L. pp. 306 ff.

'^ t^u = *si-zd'd, a reduplicated verb like tanjfUf risto ; 2d is
the weakest form of the root *sed'. It has been shown by
von Rozwadowski (BB. xxi. pp. 147 ff.) that alongside the root sed-
there existed also a root sid- from which Hi-pO-w seems certainly to
be derived. X^v phonetically might represent *sid'}Oy while kd-o
might be an original Indo-G. verb from the same root. But the
explanation in the text is equally possible.

' With the Latin change of d to I (§ 134). The meaning would
be exactly that of "soldier,*' one who serves for money (solidi).

§146 LABIAL AND PALATAL SPIRANTS Ul

w and 1^

144. These soands seem to have been indis-
tinguishable from an early period, Eecently an
attempt has been made to show that a difference of
treatment is discernible in Armenian, but the point is
not finally decided.^ It is possible that the difference
between w and |^ (and between y and }) was not that
the one was a stronger spirant than the other, but that
w and y were breathed while y, and j were voiced.

As no certain distinction can be drawn between
w and y,, the consideration of both sounds may be
postponed till we reach the diphthongs (§ 173).

Greek is the only language where a clear dis-
tinction is made between the treatment

.... ,, ...,. X Difference be-

01 original y and that of original j. In tweenoHg. jand
Greek, original y is represented by f.
There are but a few certain examples, and these
only at the beginning of words.

^ecay : Eng. yeasi

{ = *y€S-6)

i'vy6p Lat jiigum : Eng. yoke

t^M : Lat yi«C* broth")

III. (a) Liquids as Consonants.
145. The number of liquids in the original
language is not absolutely certain: two original i^nids
sounds, I and r, certainly existed, but ""^ertam.

Bat as Latin d here would represent Indo-G. dh^ the phonetic
change is doubtful.

* See H. D. Darbishire, Notes on the SpirUus Asper in Greek
etymologieaUy considered (Transactions of the Cambridge Philo-
logical Society), Cambridge, 1888.

142 LIQUIDS AS CONSONANTS §146

there may have been more. The diflBculty of the
question is increased by the fact that the Aryan
languages sometimes have r where the other
languages have uniformly L

146. Indo-G. Z = Skt. I and r} Zend and Old
Persian r, in all the other languages I?

^ The relations between I and r in Skt. and the development
of the cerebral dentals from the original combination / + dental
have been discussed by P. Fortunatov, BB. vi. pp. 215 ff., and
more recently by Bechtel, Hauptprobleme der indog. Laulkhre,
pp. 380 ff. , who, in the main, endorses F.'s conclusions. The results
have been submitted to a searching investigation by Bartholomae
(I.F, iii. pp. 157 ff.), whose criticism is mainly negative. The
subject has been again treated by H. D. Darbishire in a pos-
thumous essay {Helliquiae Philologiccte, pp. 202 ff.), and by £. V.
Arnold {Festgntss an Both, pp. 145 ff., and Historical Vedic Grammar,
pp. 159 ff.), who has collected all the material for the history of I in
early Skt. Prof. Arnold's facts seem to prove that the difference
of usage in different hymns of the Yedic corpus depends rather
upon difference of dialect than, as he holds, upon separation in
time.

The chief difficulties with regard to the history of I and r in the
Aryan group of languages are these : (1) / occupies a very incon-
siderable space in early Skt. ; where the classical language has I,
the Rigveda has mostly r ; (2) in the Avesta I does not occur at
all ; (3) the cuneiform symbol in Old Persian identified by Oppert
as I occurs only in two foreign words ; (4) the modem Iranian
dialects have I but do not agree in its use. On the other hand,
all the European groups have an Z-sound and agree in its use.
Fortunatov now {K.Z. 36, 1 ff.) holds that there were three
Indo-G. liquids — (1) r, (2) I, (3) X ; the precise nature of \ is not
clear. While Indo-G. r is represented by r in all the languages,
X is represented in the European branches and Armenian by /, in
the Aiyau branch by r; I appears always in Iranian, sometimes
in the Veda, as r, but in classical Skt. as L The difficulty of
distinguishing r and I is felt in our own time by the Chinese
and Siamese. Christ in Chinese is Kilisetu; a Siamese will
pronounce "the flames rolled on " as " the frame loll on."

^ For the varying quality of Latin I see § 161.

148

LIQUIDS AND NASALS

U3

Skt. Gk. Lat. Eng.

»^ruc "shine" : \euic-6-j : Ixic-em : light (O.E. ledht)

mJp^ **)iesLT" : k\v-t6-s : in-elu-tU'S : loud {O.E. hlud,%l3d)

Ka\'€iy : cal-are : hale and hail

utXiyri : ulna : ell

{ireXXa : pellis : (fell " skin "

IT 'XfjM * * sole of shoe " : \ film

147. Indo-G. r = Skt. I and r, in all the other
languages r,

Gk. Lat Eng.

6-piyta : por-rigo : reach and Tiac^ *

0 ^p« : /cro : bear

irdpKo-i : porcu-s : /arrow " litter of pigs "

O.E./carA"pig"
ipv$'p6-s : ruddr : ruddy "red"'

W-po-j' : oUer (O.E. otor)

dy-p6-s : a<7«r (from *a§ros : acre (Goth, o^r*)
through the stage *a§fs)

IV. (a) Nasals as Consonants.

148. Indo-G. m appears as m in all the branches
of the Indo-G. family. In Greek, Keltic, Germanic,
and Slavonic final m became n.

Gk.

Lat.

Eng.

Doric ftA-rrip

ina-ter :

mother (§ 104)

&'lU\yu)

mulgeo

milk

Oep-fid-t* '

for-mus :

warm

\d6-fKhi

: do-mU'S

tim^r^ (Germ, zvnmer ** room")

r6-v

: iS'tu-m

: Goth ])an-a

' Some meanings of rack are apparently borrowed from the
Dutch.

' The English word has not the -ro- suffix.
^ LiteraUy "water beast."

* The Greek word represents the c-form, the Latin and English
the o-form of the root "e^her- (§ 141, b).

• Properly "wood for building," cp. Lat. tig-nu-m from tego.

144 NASALS AS CONSONANTS § 149 —

149. Indo-G. n appears as w in all the branches
of the Indo-G. family.

6k.

Lat

Eng.

v^oi ( = Wfo-t)

novus^

new

vi-b9 ** spin "

ne-o

needle^

Dialectic o^v6-t

u-nu-s ( = *oi'no-8)

one, any a'

iy

in*

in

150. Indo-G. n appeared only before palatals,
r? before velars.

6k. Lat Eng.
fl &yx^ ' o-f^o : ctg- in agnail (O.E. ang-ncegl ''a sore by th<%

nail *')
f? appeared originally in Iudo-6. *penq^e=^iriirr€^ quinqite, five
(§ 139, exc. 2).

B. Sonants.
III. (6) Liquids as Sonants.

151. As sonant liquids and nasals appear in
the weakest forms of many roots which have also
stronger fonns actually existent, different forms of
the same root will often illustrate both sonant and con-
sonant types of these sounds, as SipK-ofiai, Be-SopK-a,
i-hpaK'OVy Lat. pdlo, pulsus, where e-hpaic-ov and
pvl-sfiLS represent respectively original ^i-drjk-om and
^pUd-s.

* For Lat. 0= original c see § 180.

^ According to Kluge (D.E.W. b.v, nahen), the root has been
borrowed by one language from another, and so is not originally
6ermanic. Forms appear in other languages with an initial s.

3 an and a are the unaccented forms.

* Latin in for *en is according to Hoffmann (BB. xviii. p. 156)
the unaccented form which changed 0 to i before the initial
consonant of the following word. This form then ousted *0n,
which should have appeared in other combinations.

KokOma

: Lat. oe-cvZtus

(=rXX.)

(cf. cdare)

TtlXaf

: rLat. tollo(=*qn6)
LO. Lat. tulo

(=</^)

[irwXoi]!

: La.t jmllus ={*pi-nos)

— § 163 LIQUIDS AS SONANTS 145

1 5 2. Indo-G. / = Skt. r ; Gk. aX, Xa ; Lat o/ {yl) ;
Keltic K ; Germ, vl^ lu ; Letto-Slav. U.

Before sipnants Indo-G. I is followed by the
corresponding consonant, hence Indo-G. II = Skt. ur,
ir, Gk. a\ Lat. ol {vl), Keltic a/, Gennanic and
Letto-Slav. as above.

Eng. hole (Goth, hulundi

"hiding-place")
Scotch thole (O.JL yolian,
Goth. \Mlan "suflfer")
Eng. foal (Goth, fula)
iroX.r<5t : Lat ^m^tftia « ( = *p^W»)

153. Indo-G. r = Skt. r ; Gk. ap, pa ; Lat or (ur);
Keltic ri; Germanic ur (ru, § 158); Letto-Slav. ir.

Indo-G. rr = Skt. ur, ir ; Gk. ap ; Lat ol (ul) ;
Keltic ar ; Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above.

Skt. Gk. Lat Eng.

hhrtia : [0^p«] : fors ( = *bhrti-s) : birlh (O.E. ge-byrd)
cp. ddp'<Ti-s Goth ^-tour]>9

(from Sipa)

porca "balk be- : furrow, fur-long
tween furrows " O.K/wrA-

irpdffo-p^ "leek" : porrum ( = *PT-so-m)

ovB-ap shows final rr ; er of tUer probably arises
in the same way as in ctger, from *agrs, agros,

^ The word, as is shown by the difference of meaning in Latin,
had originally been used for any young animal. The Greek form
shows the root in a different grade from that of the other languages.

^ In such words, 8 after I appears on the analogy of forms like
voTtu8=.*vft-t68f where 8 is according to a Latin phonetic rule
(§ 190).

' The reason for the double representation of the sonant liquids
in Greek is a vexed question. According to Eretschmer (K,Z, 31,
pp. 890 ff.) ap appears if the later Greek accent falls on the
syllable, pa if the syllable remains unaccented. But cp. § 158.

L

146 LONG SONANT LIQUIDS § 164 —

154, The existence of long sonant liquids is
Long sonant Very doubtful (cp. § 82). According

liquidB. ^ Brugmann,^ Indo-G. f, f are repre-
sented in Skt. by ilr, vr ; in Gk. by ©X, Xw, ©p,
po) (never at the end of words), and by oX, op
before a following consonant ; in Lat by a/, la, dr,
rd, and by a/, ar before a following consonant. In
Keltic the representation is the same as in Latin,
while Germanic has dl, dr, whence a/, ar before
certain consonants, and perhaps ur, vJ, The
question, which affects nasals as well as liquids, is
complicated with the difficult problem of the
relations between forms like Oavaro^ and Ojnjro^,
raXa-Fo'^ and tXi;-to9 (Lat. Id-tns, ptcp. to fero),
aSdfjuiTo^ and aBfirfTo^, a problem which is not yet
satisfactorily solved (cp. § 158).

odXos^*' curly " = *uJno-8
Skt murdhan- "top," "head*

iri-irpu-Tai

Lat. lana=y,lna
fi\<ae-p6-s "tall"
Lat. strd-tu8
Lat. pars ( — *pfti-8y cp.
partim, old accusatiye)

IV. (6) Nasals as Sonante.

155. The Indo - Germanic sonant nasals in
VArioua repre- Aryan and Greek, when not standing
nant nasals in immediately before t and probably u,

Giwk and Latin f ^ /, j

according to or a souaut, are represented by a and
accent. a respcctivcly ; in the other languages,

with scarcely any exception, they are represented
by the same sounds in all positions, these sounds

1 Grundr%$8, i.« §§ 523 ff.

'•2 Brugmann (^. i' § 524) now explains odXos as *foXyot.

§ 167 NASALS AS SONANTS 147

being m and n {% ri) respectively, with a vowel
which in Sanskrit and Greek is a, a, in Latin e, in
Keltic originally e (for nn, an\ in Germanic u, in
Letto-Slav. i,

156. Indo-G. m = Skt. a, am; Gk. a, afi- (before
a sonant); Latin em; Keltic im, am; Germanic um;
Letto-Slav. im.

Similarly for the/i-sounds, Skt. a, an; Gk.a,ai;,etc.

Ace. suffix -i^i' : T63-a : Lat. j?A2'«m : Ooih. fot-u ( = *fot-um)

From the stem s«m- seen in 6116^, & ( = *sem),
Ilia ( = ^smia) we find

d- in d-irX6ot=*^- : Lat. sim-plex

Before sonants

dfi.-a=*srrim- : Lat. sem-el Goth. «W7n-»=*«7jim-o-s
Before j, m becomes ai; in Gk., en in Latin.^

paXpu [{or *pa»io)=* ^rp-iS) : Lat. twnio : £ng. com«

157. Indo-G. n = Skt. a, an; Gk. a, ai; (before a
sonant); Lat. en; Keltic, in, an; Germanic un;
Letto-Slav. in.

Negative prefix, Indo-G. *n : Gk. o : Lat en {in) : Eng. un
Skt sat' : Dialectic iaaaa (fem.) : Lat. prae-sens : [Eng. sooth,^
( = *€-(r7ir}a) from the stronger

form]
M-fULT-a : Lat cog-no-ment-a : Germanic suffix -mund,
( = -mnt') in German leu-mund

SoffCt : Lat. den^atis

^ The reason for the diflference of treatment in combination
with j^ was probably difference in the division of syllables when a
Towel sound developed before the nasal : ^^a-vvta and below
^fMjU'VUTOL (cp. Hirt, l.F, vii p. 146),

' The meaning is "truth" as in "sooth to tell," etc. The
derivative aatya in Skt has the same meaning. The forms cited
above are from the present participle of the substantive verb *e5-.

148 OSTHOFF'S THEORY OF §167 —

Before sonants

rwii'ikiavcw ( = *^fi»t*-) : Lat. tenu-i-s : Eng. thin ( = *J>m»»iiw)*

Before %

ftalvercu (=*mf^ietai) : cf. Lat. genius : Eng. kin (stem ♦ifc^jjo-)*

158. The history of the long sonant nasals is
Long sonant ^^en more obscure than that of the long
"^^*- sonant liquids. In Greek d (Ionic and
Attic rj) is said to represent m and n between con-
sonants, while vd appears for initial n; Ifirp-e^

In Latin nd appears for n in the middle of
words, as in gndtus, an initially, anas " duck," cp.
Gk. vrjaa-a ( = *^ja).

In 1890 Osthoflf propounded a new treatment

oathoiTsnew ^f the souaut uasals, recognising two

theory. (Jififerent forms in each of the Indo-Ger-

manic languages for each of these sounds.* Thus

^ The vowel of the English word shows the influence of an t-
sound in the second syllable. In O.K the adjectives in -u- haye*
practically disappeared.

' An accented sonant nasal or liquid, except as the result of
analogy, is a contradiction in terms, these sounds being by defini-
tion the result of the absence of expiratory accent on any given
syllable. The forms supposed to be accented are now satis-
factorily cleared up by Streitberg (7.^. L p. 88). The sonant
nasals, according to him, have only one representation in Gk. and
Skt. just as in the other languages ; where Skt. am, an, 6k. av
occur to represent these sounds, the form is a mixture between
the genuine sonant a, a and the stronger grades with original
e and 0. Thus tdai is a mixture of *iiici {^i-inti) and ^pm, cp.
Lat. euni,

• It seems, however, better to treat ^-pv-^i etc., as parallel to
i-^-y and as coming from a root akin to but not identical with
that of ^oiyo; (§ 480, a).

^ Morphdogische Dntersuehungenj vol. v. pp. iv. ff.

§ 169 NASALS AND LIQUIDS U9

in Greek m, n are represented not only by a and
av} but also by /mi- and va-, in Latin by ma, na
as well as by em, en, in Germanic by mu and nu
as well as by um and wn. It has always been
recognised that I and r in Greek had each two
representatives aX, Xa; a/>, />a. Osthofif finds in
Latin besides ol and or, te and ra, and in Germanic
besides vX and ur, lu and n^. Similarly the long
sonant nasals and liquids are represented in the
manner given above.

Examples of the second set of representative
sounds are fiarevo) from the same root as /leraWdo).

magntts = *7ngno8 from root of fiirfa<;.

vauo = *«5J^ (from the weakest form of the root
in j/o<r-To-9).

nac-tv3, Indo-G. root ndi-}

V. Vowels.

1 59. Indo-G. a = Skt. a, Gk. a, Lat. a (in certain
cases given below e, i, u), Kelt, a, Germ, a, Letto-
Slav. 0, but at a later period a in the Lettic dialects.

iy-pS-s : Lat. ager from offros : Eng. acre (Goth, akrs)

through *agT8
dp-Sfa : Lat. ar-o : Goth, arja "I plough"

Bibl. E. canw^ "ploughing aeason*'
iirrl : Lat ante (§ 165) : Eng. and- in an-8u>er (lit "swear

against ")

^ This- is discounted by Streitberg's theory given in § 157, n. 6 ;
magnua, also, could be explained as *m9g-7i6-8f fjiiyat as migns.

« Sonant z is found by Thumeysen, K,Z, 30, pp. 851 ff., in such
words as x^^^ (^^gh^l-iyo-^ ^pOyw, Lat. frigOf KpiO-n {=ghr^dhd\
akin to Germ, gerste, Eng. grisL

150 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS §169 —

In Latin a when unaccented became

(1) in open syllables a neutral vowel the sound
Unaccented ^^ which was represented sometimes by

in Latin. ^^ somctimcs by u; thus quatio, concviio;
salio, inmlio ; hut pater, lup-piter; ago, adigo ;

(2) in close syllables, with rare exceptions, e :
cano, concentvs ; capio, acceptvs (cp. accipio) ; facio,
arti/ex, but artifids according to (1). Before I
followed by another consonant a appears as u:
concuko but caico (cp. § 273).

i6o. Indo-G. a = Skt. a, Gk. d (17), Lat a, Kelt.
a and a (when unaccented). Germ. 0 (§ 106, ii.),
Letto-Slav. originally a, which now appears as 0
in Lith., a in Lett, and Old Prussian, and a in
Slavonic.

In Ionic Gk. d became 17 everywhere, in Attic d
appears at the end of words after another vowel
and after p (§ 62) ; elsewhere Attic has 17.

Att 'ZZ ) = ^*- "^■'" = ^<^- "^"^ « '""^

Doric <pd-y6-s\ : Lat Jagus : £ng. buck-wJieai

6-s\
6'iJ

Attic <fnf'y6'ij O.E. bde-tredto (beech-tree),

book

Doric ASiJs
Attic ifdi^

Lat. s^tdvis : O.E. swcU^

161. Indo-G. ?=Skt a, Gk. €. Lat. e (in some
cases i and 0), Kelt, e, Germ, c but in many
positions (in Gothic everywhere) i^ Letto-Slav.

^ The form heeth comes from a bjform of this word, hece (see
N,KD. 8A\),

* SwoU, adverb ** sweetly" ; O.E. svj&e the adjective has its i
through the influence of its suffix.

' Before r and h in Gothic the e- sound* was retained. In
Gothic MSS. it appears as ai and in modem books is given as

§ 161 HISTORY OF A AND E 151

e (in the same case as in Latin o, whence
Lith. a).

6k. Lat. Eng.

hear (O.H.G. htran, inf.)

^/>-{j : fer-o

iytb : ego

54ka : cUeem

€<m : ««^

7^^-^ : gefti-a

/ (Goth, ik)
ten (§ 148)

is (Goth. Germ. wO
cAtn (Goth, kinniis)
O.E. mwa (§ 10)

In originally unaccented syllables in Latin e be-
came i — (1) when any single consonant unaccented
but r followed, (2) generally before •"^**'*-
nasals in close syllables.

(1) agite^ayere; lego but colligo (cp. confero),
premo but opprimo, etc. (2) quinque = irivre (§ 139,
2), tignum " wood for roofing " tego^ lignum " wood,
for gathering," " fuel " lego.

In Latin e before u became o, tiovus = i/ef 09, 0.
Lat. tovos (tuns) = reFo^.

Original el became ol in Latin before all
sounds except ?, ?, i, and a second -/-. Thus
ollva, olivom boiTOwed from iKaiFa, iXatFov ;
olor : Gk. ikaypio^ ; Tn^Zo " grind " : 0. Irish
mdim ; volvo, originally trisyllabic, from the stem
seen in ikv-rpov. But cdeber from *celes-ri'S,
vdim, melioTy pellis, tellies, etc. Scelus keeps

ai to distinguish it from the genuine diphthong. Hence in
Gothic the sonants of hairan^ raihts, and niman all represent
original e.

^ The original meaning of the word, as is shown by legal Latin,
is *'take."

' Tignum, however, is more commonly connected with tck- in
ritcTtaif, Skt. taJc^an- (§ 195). But the root may be the same.

152 INDO-GERMANIC VOWELS §161 —

d before u (o) through the influence of sceUer-is,
etc.^

162. Indo-G. « = Skt. a, Gk. 97, Lat. « {l\ Kelt I,
Germ, originally ^, which Gothic retains, the other
dialects changing to a, Letto-Slav. ^, whence Lith. e,
Slav, i {yd, a).

Gk.

Lat

Eng.

fii/iy for *Mi^j«

mensis

: mom, O.E. f»dna,Goth. mina

(cp. Lesb. gen. /lijpwoi

: 7tionih, Goth. m^no>5

= Vi?»'<r-oj)

^Aw

se-men

: seed { = *s9-yi-8)

r-iy-/tt

se-ro

: 90U? (O.E. adwan^ inf.)

( = *si-8e'mi)

(=*H-so)

Ta-Hip

pa-ter

: /a-^A^r (§ 104)

id-rid-(Sn

ed'i

: ate (Goth, et-wm "we ate")

In Latin /Ku5 appears, not felius, possibly through
influence of the i in the next syllable, if the word
is really connected with OrjiKv^, etc., as " suckling " ;
cp. in Umbrian tref sif feliuf "three sucking
pigs."

163. Indo-G. tf = Skt aanda(in open syllables*);
Gk. o ; Lat 0, u, e, i ; Kelt 0 ; Germ, a; Letto-Slav. 0,
which in the Lettic dialects has become a.

^ Osthoff, Transactions of American Philological Associaiion^
1898, pp. 60 ff.

^ The phonetically correct representative of this original form,
viz. luli, is found in Ionic.

' There is a difficalty here. Not every original 0 in an open
syllable becomes a in Skt Cp. pdtis v6ffLt with jdn-a-s ySw-o-s,
This difficalty is evaded by de Saussure and others by assuming
two original d-sounds, one of which interchanges with i and is
represented by d in Skt., while the other remains constant as 0,
and is always represented in Skt by d. See § 114, and cp. LF.
iii. pp. 364 flf., and A, J, P. xvii. pp. 445 ff.

— § 164 HISTORY OF O SOUNDS 153

Gk.

Lat.

dicT«6

oc^o

'. Eng. <m;^A< (Goth. oAMu)

ThoVi

potU

: Goth. &rfl>-/a>« "bridegroom"

( = *TAr«, §188)

r6( = ^toeO:

is-tud

: Eng. £Aa<

Ihm

domus :

: cp. Eng. day {=:*dhoghos) (Goth, daga)

yhoi

I genus

: cp. Germ, sieg, O.E. wgror "victory"
(=*5i^Aa»), Skt. sdhas

Doric ^fho-m \

: fer-u-Tit

: Goth. 6air-a-«rf

In Latin of the Augustan period, u in final
syllables has superseded o except after «,i,« in Latin
If , as in sertws, equos (§ 125). =orig.o.

u sometimes appears even in accented syllables,
as in hunc = Jumc, uncus = ftyxco?.

i appears for o in ilico = *m sloco (old form of
hcus) ''on the spot," and possibly in agi-imLS as
compared with &yo'fi€v. It is, however, possible
that agi-mus by analogy follows agitis in its vowels.
The genitive ending -is is not an example of this
weakening; -is in this case stands for -es, a grade
of the suffix different from the Greek -09.

Except as a final sound {sequere = eireo), e appears
in Latin for 0 probably only in unaccented close
syllables, a case in which a also changes to e
(§ 159); e.g. hospes, a compound of hostis "guest,
stranger," ^ and potis " lord " ; cp. on the other
hand, compos, impos, later formations after the word
had become an adjective.

1 64. Indo-G. 0 = Skt. a, 6k. o, Lat. 5, Keltic a,
u in final syllables. Germ. 0 (originally), Letto-Slav.
u (Lith. and Lett.), a Slavonic.

^ This ifl the original meaning of the word ; gwst, Goth. gcutSf
is its philological equivalent.

154 INDO'GERMANIC VOWELS §164 —

wk^iw

: Lat emo

: Goth nima ^

aStap

I

: Goth. uxU-S (an
n-stem)

&a ** border of a garment "

: Lat. ora "shore"

: O.E. Gra

€ld-<bs

: Osc. sip-US^

: Goth, weit-wods

165. Indo-G. ^ = Skt i, Gk. 4, Latin i, e (in
final syllables and before r), Kelt, i, e (before a and
0), Germ, i, Letto-Slav. i.

Gk. Lat Eng.

? Doric Ip-iffy " iuvenis " : vir ( = *jfiro«) : world ^

TtO-^ff-dai : /d-es : Wrf * (Goth, hidjan)

ffrd-ffi-i : sta-ti-o : s^eocf ( = *sth9-ti-s,

{ = *8th9-ti-s) §169)

fors { = *forti8 : birth (=bhfti-s)
from rt. *6A«r-)

For Latin i changing to «, cp. s«ro " I sow " =
*si-sd (§ 142) with si-sto. Final i appears as e in
the nominative of neuter noun stems in -i-, as mare
for older mari, and in the ablative if, as is most
probable, it represents the original locative; ped-e
is then to be compared with ttoB-L

166. Indo-G. i = Skt. ?, Gk. Z, Lat. I, Kelt f.
Germ, l, Letto-Slav. I (written y in Lith.).

Iria^FiTia : Lat. vt-ti-s : Eng. toithy

^ In Goth, final 6 is always shortened and becomes a. In O.EL
final d appears as u^ o, and «.

^ So Johannes Schmidt {K.Z. 26, p. 873), who explains it as the
weak form of the participle of *sepif the old perfect of sapio, cp.
eld-vuLf *F€td-wr-ia, Others regard the suffix as original *u6s.

* World originally means "the age of man" (O.E. tuearold)
=^8aeculuin.

* In the English "bid " two separate original verbs are confused,
corresponding respectively to Trid-iadai. and w6-ia6ai, the former
in English originally meaning " pray " as in ** bidding-prayer," the
latter "command" now the ordinary sense.

— § 169 HISTORY OF I AND U SOUNDS 155

Indo-G. sufBx -xno- :

dyxi^or-hos : Lat. su-inu-s : Eng. sw-iTUf O.E. sio-in

Weaker form of optative suffix -jg- :

elSeifiep : Lat simiu : O.H.G. sim and sin

{ = *el8eff'T'fjLew) (strong form in ^m) (O.E. »ten)

1 67. Indo-6. u = Skt-i^jOk. v, Lat. t^ (t or a neutral
sound before labials), Kelt, u, Germ, u, Letto-Slav. u.

Lat nU'diU'8 : Eng. now, O.E. nU

Lat juffum : Eng. ^A:^, Goth. ^uA;

Lat t9i-(^tf-^u5 : Qem. {H)lud-wig {=Leuns)^

For Latin i (or the intermediate sound between
i and u, cp. optimus and optumvs), we
have an example in Zt6e<, bye-form of
/wie^ from a root ^Ivih-, The i-form arose first in
a compound like quidlubet, where u being unaccented
becomes the neutral vowel. Compare also limpa or
luynpa, later by reason of false derivation from Greek,
lympha. This variation is very frequent in the
dative and ablative plural of t^stems, as in geni-htis
as well as genu-hus from gen-u.

168. Indo-G. iZ = t2 in the first stages of all the
separate languages.

mCj :

Lat mu8

: O.E. miis {mouse)

5-f

Lat 8U-8

: O.E. su (for *«4-2), «oi/;

T6-e» :

Lat pu-le-o

: 0.-R./^-l{foul)

1 69. Indo-G. 9 " schwa " or the neutral vowel =
Skt. i (a before i-vowels), Gk. a (e, o), orig. Ms treated
Lat. a (t, u\ Kelt, a, Germ, a, Letto- l"«th's"?drt?;
Slav. a. In these languages it suffers li^^'^'lfS^;
all the later changes which the sound ^^^""flesiL

' The English loud, O.E. hludf comes from a by form of this
original participle *hlu-td-8.

156 INDO-GERMANIC " SCHWA " § 169

with which it is identified undergoes ; thus in Latin
it appears as i in animtts, cp. accipio (§ 159). In
Greek it occurs frequently as the weakest form of
a syllable, and then, except when influenced by
analogy, always as a.
Orig. form *pa-^r.

Skt. pi-td{r) : Ta-njp : Lat. pa-ter : Goth, fa-dar

Orig. form *sth9-ti'S.

Skt. 8thi-ti-s : <rrd-at-t : Lat. ^a-H-o : Eng. stead (§104)

Aif-C'/JLoi : Lat. an-i-miLS
Skt. vam-i-mi : Fefi-i-w

The -0- form appears in 6k. in ofi-o-rij^: and
similar words. The reason for the variation between
€ and o in the syllable succeeding a root, when € and
o represent original 9, is not known.^

j and ^.

1 70. I and y> remain in many positions in all
Varying treat- the ludo-G. languages, though in some

ment of i and _ _ . o o » o

y, according to they havc bccu strengthened to spirants,

position in the ; , ° _ i , , .

word. or have become voiceless and labio-

dental, as in Irish fer " man " = ^yXros, Lat. vir.

These sounds are most important in two positions
(a) preceding a sonant in the same syllable, as vi-Fo-^,
nO'VO'S; (6) following a sonant in the same syllable, as
aj, oy,. In the former position j and y, are naturally
often also preceded by sonants as in the example
given, but consonants also frequently precede, as

* For Ap-c-fio-s, ifi-4'U, and other forms of the same kind, Kick's
theory of disyllabic roots supplies a better explanation. Assimila-
tion between the vowel sounds of succeeding syllables may also
have taken place to some extent (cp. J. Schmidt, K. Z. 32, pp. 821 ff.).

— § 172 VOWELS USED AS CONSONANTS

157

^ivFo^, Attic fei'o?, (rT€X\a>= *crT€X4ft). In the
latter position j and y, may similarly be followed by
either sonants or consonants.

171. (a) Preceding a sonant in the same syllable.

1. Initially:

J is represented in Greek by the spiritus asper;
y regularly disappears in Attic, though sometimes
by a kind of " cockney " pronunciation, which in the
fourth century B.C. was very frequent, the spiritus
asper occurs. In many other dialects it was retained
as F.

Gk.

Lat

Eng.

v6.K'iveoi

: juvencus

: young (§ 104)

iffjLtis (Aeolic Iffifie

:

: Goth, jus

= *iu-9me)

\lria J

: vi-ti'S

: vnih-y (§ 166)

jFbxot ^

: veho

: toain

rt ^h-

172. 2. Medially:

J between vowels disappeared early everywhere
in Greek except when preceded by v. In this case
some dialects, as Cyprian and Lesbian (cp. § 122),
retained it down to the historic period. In Latin
also, J between vowels has disappeared before the
historical time. For j with sonant nasals see § 156.

6k. Lat.

i'am-o =ajnd-id
mom-o=^mxme-io
fini'O =Jlni-id
status =stcUu-id

r!7 I **P^ ^° Theocritus : fu-cU = *6M- j-

* This is the common view, but some of both the Gk. and the
Latin verbs are more probably later modifications of stems in -mi.

158 INDO'GERMANIC DIPHTHONGS §172 —

In many words in which % is consonantal in
other languages, it appears as a vowel in Latin, cp.
fieaao^ (Homeric) = */x€5- to-? (§ 135) with Lat.
mediv^,

y, between vowels is preserved as f in many
dialects though not in Attic. It remains also in
Latin.

6{F)ii : Lat ovis : £ng. ewe

al-{F)u)P : Lat ae-vo-m : Goth, aiw, O.E. d (from •otra), "always "

The combination of these sounds with con-
sonants will be discussed later (^197 flf.).

VI. Diphthongs.

173. (b) i and y, following a sonant in the same

syllable. These combinations are called
diphthongs. There were, as already
mentioned (§ 115), twelve original diphthongs, but
those with a long first element were always rare and
have been much mutilated in their later development
in the separate languages.

Hence the diphthongs with a short first element
Diphthongs with will be given here and the remaining
short sonant fragments of the others after them.

174. Indo-G. aj = Skt. S; Gk. at; Lat. ae, I;
Kelt, at, t (final); Germ, ai (O.E. a); Letto-Slav. ai, e
(Lith.), ? (Slav.).

This diphthong is preserved in Greek and in the
early period of Latin, later it becomes ae and, in
syllables unaccented in the early Latin system of
accentuation, i (^ 272 flf.).

— § 176 INDO'GERMANIC AI, EI, OI 159

{O.Yt..ad (funeral pyre)
Eng. idle?!

al0-o-s 0. Lat. aid^^lis^

ctedes j
\cu'F6-s Lat. lae-vo-8

For the change to f in Latin, cp. aestimo with
exlstumo, laedo with collldo.

In Greek and Latin an original diphthong n
would be confused with a\ as, in both languages, a^
a representB original a (§ 169). A fairly certain
example of -h- is to be found in the optative forms
araXixev, OeT/iev, Boifiev, a in the two last taking the
" colour " of the characteristic vowel of their con-
jugations.

175. Indo-G. ej = Skt. S, Gk. et, Lat. I (ei), Kelt.
e (with later changes), Germ, ij (O.E. I), Letto-
Slav. ei, becoming in Lith. e, in Slav, i (always
long).

Preserved intact in Greek and in early Latin, «j
in later Latin appears as 1

T€ieu : lAt, feido {/Ido) : Eng. hid (§ 166, n. 4)
ffTflxfa : Lat. in-ve-stig-are : O.E. allgan^ (inf.)

The hysterogenous et of if>iXelT€ (§ 122) must
not be confused with the original Greek diphthong ei.

176. Indo-G. oj = Skt B; Gk. ot; Lat. oe, u, I;
Kelt, oiy I; Germ, and Letto-Slav. have the same
forms as for aj.

Preserved in Greek, oj becomes in Latin oe and
u in accented, I in unaccented syllables.

^ Perhaps the original meaning of idle was " empty " or " con-
sumed."

' With this are connected sty (in the sense of enclosure and of
swelling on the eye), and jtotr=O.K stdger.

160 INDO'GERMANIC DIPHTHONGS §176 —

fr4-iroi0-a : Lat foed-ua : [Goth, hidjan^ p. 164, n. 4]

oM-e : Lat ind-U ^ : Goth. M)aU (Eng. w?oi)
( = fot«-e)

ol-yo-s (**ace") : Lat. oenii«, untt^ : Goth, ains (Eng. on^, on, a)

Examples of the change of oi in Latin to u are
seen in 0. Lat. l<yido$y later Ivdus ; 0. Lat. mairos,
later murtts, but po-merivmi ( = " the place behind
the walls") for ^pos-moiriom.^ I is seen in the
dative and abl. plural of o-stems : vvyis = oi/coi<:, both
going back to *j^oj&5js. So also nom. pi. Is-ti = roi
(Doric).

1 77, Indo-6. ay, = Skt. d ; Gk. au ; Lat. au (0), u;
Kelt. aUj 0 ; Germ, at^ (O.E. ioi) ; Letto-Slav. aw,
later Slav, u (always long).

Preserved in Greek and in accented syllables in
Latin, in unaccented syllables it becomes u. In
the pronunciation of the common people au seems
to have been pronounced as 0, cp. Clodius (plebeian)
and Clavdius (patrician), plostrum and plattstrum,

^ After V in Latin, 0} by a species of dissimilation apparently
becomes f, cp. oUoi with Lat. vurus. In some Scotch dialects the
same thing takes place ; u after w is unpronounceable and is
changed to i, or w is dropped. In Aberdeenshire, loool is pro-
nounced *oo\ wound ^oon* {00 =u). In the Board schools, woody
toould are commonly pronounced *ood ; the popular pronunciation
varies from vnd to timd^{u as in but). As the sound of 0 in Greek
tended towards U and in the Aeolic dialect is frequently repre-
sented by it, this form of dissimilation may explain why in Homer
such words as 6pdu) show no trace of the Diganmia which they
undoubtedly once possessed (Monro, HO,^ § 393).

^ Voaaihly foedus owes its archaic form to the fact that it was
a technical word in the Jils fetiaie ; po-meriumy obedio aeem to have
e in syllables originally without accent (§ 272). Cp. von Planta,
OramnuUik der oskiseh-umhrischen DiaUktCj i. § 76, p. 1 54. Solmscn
{LF, iv. pp. 251 ff.) explains pommum also as an antiquated official
term with archaic spelling.

— § 179 INDO'GERMANIC AU, EU, OU 161

In the Imperial period au veered towards an a
sound ; hence such forms as Agustus, Cladius, and
the like.

ad^'dvu) Lat. aug-ere : £ng. eke (Groth. (mkan)
xav-po-i : La,t, pau-cu-s : 'Kng, few {Goth, faws)

a appears for au in Latin in compounds, as
davdo, ineludo, and in some simple words as frustra,
connected with fraudo. But frvstra may represent
a diflferent root grade.

178. Indo-G. ejf = Skt. 6; Gk. ev ; Lat. ou, u;
Kelt. OU (with later changes); Germ, iu (Goth.);
Letto-Slav. au (Lith.), u (from oy^) Slav.

e^ is preserved in Greek but has entirely dis-
appeared in Latin, having passed first into (y^ and
next, along with original (y^, into u, eu in neu, sen,
etc., is the result of contraction (§129).

7ejJ-« (=*J«|^-o) : Lat. [gu^re^^ : Goth, hiiisan

O.E. ciosan, EDg. choose
dJw( = *ey«5) : Lat. flro

? 5ai-d6(rffeff6ai ^ : 0. Lat. doueo (dlico) : Goth, tiuhan,
( = *5ai'dvKi€ffeai) from *detieo cp. Eng. tow (verb)

1 79. Indo-G. ojf = Skt. d; Gk. ou; Lat. u, d; Kelt,
(m (with later changes); Germ, au (0. Eng. ea);
Letto-Slav. au (Lith.), u Slav.

This diphthong, which should appear in the
perfect and in certain noun-forms from verbs with
a present in -eu-, has almost disappeared in Greek.
€tKi]\ov6a, cp. fut. iXeva-ofjMt for iKevB-ao/uii, and
(TTTouS?;, cp. (TTrevSo), are the only certain instances.
<f>€xrfw and irevOofuu (irvvOavofiaC) form their nouns

^ From the weak form of the root— $rfi« — a frequentatiye.
8 =:l\K€adai, Hesychitts.

M

1 62 CHANGES IN LA TIN § 179 —

in a different manner, and in <f>€vya) the perfect has
followed the analogy of the present ; hence we find
Tre^etKya for the regular *7re(f>ovya.

In Latin, as mentioned above, oy, becomes u and
sometimes d in the classical period.

*K€'XoF-a : liAU/Udi't : Goth. ffdtU

(hypothetical perfect

ofx^^w)

Lat. rdbus : Goth, rduds {red)

Under what circumstances 0 appears in Latin
for ojf. is not certain.^

i8o. In Latin y, seems to have a peculiar

influence on adjacent vowels. Medially
owing to influ- it combincs with a following e into Oy

as m sor(yi* = ^8]^esQr, socer = ^8]^kros.
Medially it also changes a preceding e into o
(§ 161), as in novos = ^ne-yxt-s, tovos {ticus) = He-y^-s
(jeos;). In a considerable number of instances ojf,
both initial and medial, seems to become av : caveo :
KoFeto, faveo causative of fti-i, lavere : Xof e. The
reason for this is uncertain — it is attributed by
some to accent, preaccentual oy becoming ay ; and
there are some exceptions, the explanation of which
is by no means easy, as ovis?

^ Eretschmer contends {K.Z, 81, pp. 451 ff.) that in most cases
where 6 appears, it represents the long diphthong ay. There
would thus be a difference of grade between rufua "red," the
borrowed word (§ 135), and the genuine Latin rCbus^ rdbigOf while
d-jnlio and H-pUio represent respectively M- and M-,

^ avUlua *' new-bom lamb," which is cited as connected with
ovis, is obyionsly a diminutive from the same root as agnus, d^6r,
and therefore =:*as^-i//i». The material to support the change of
ott to cqf has been carefally coUected by L. Horton-Smith in several
articles in A,J,P,, The Establishment and Extension of the Law of

— §181 INDO-GERMANIC LONG DIPHTHONGS 163

1 8 1. Diphthongs with a long first element.

(1) aj. A diphthong of this kind, which arose
in the original language by contraction, Diphthongs with
is to be found in the dative sing, of i<>°8«>°"»*-
a-stems ; Doric ^vya = ^vydc, Lat. fugae = earlier
*fugdi = *bhuga + a% cp. Groth. gibai " for a gift."

(2) ^j would occur by contraction of the
augment with ej of the verb form. Thus ^ + «i
would appear as H, as in ya from el/u. It is also
found in Latin rS-s, Skt. rdi-, = *raj-.

(3) oj; in the dative of o-stems both singular
and plural; otxc^: Lat. vlcO = *y^ikdi, oXkoi^'l Lat.
vlcis = *ymkdiSy Skt. vefdis} The example shows
that at the end of a word the final } of d} disappears
in Latin. In the earliest Latin the full form -oi
is still found. On the oldest known inscription
Numasioi is found equivalent to the later Numerio.

(4) d]^ in vav<;, Lat ndvis, which has become
an -i-stem. According to the general rule in
Greek, a medial long diphthong passes into a
short diphthong (§227). An initial long diph-
thong is represented by Homeric fim, Attic &>?
" morning." The original form was *aj^5s, whence
in Greek *auAa)9, Lesbian avco^. In Ionic i; is

Thumeysen and. Havet, reprinted with additions (Cambridge, 1899).
The change is attributed to about 200 b.c., but the inscription of
the third century b.c., Fave L, Comeliai L. F., published by
Bdcheler {M,M. lii p. 397), is not absolutely conclusive (cp. Fay in
A,J,F. XX. p. 91). More evidence is needed. Solmsen {K.Z,
37, pp. 1 ff.) contends that av- arose from ov- in preaccentual
syllables and that only original o was affected, not the o which
arose from e,

^ There can be no doubt, I think, that these forms, though
ordinarily called instrumentals, are really the original dative.

164 INDOGERMANIC LONG DIPHTHONGS §181 —

lost, and d changes regularly to 97 (§ 160). For
60)9 see § 227.

(5) i^YCL Zeu? = *Zi7V9 ( = '^Dy^y^), from which
dies ( = ^djjS^s) also conies (cp. medius from ^Trudh-
ip's),

(6) Oy,. fiov<:, Skt. gdiis, Latin 60s (a borrowed
word) = Indo-G. *sHys (§ 140).

It seems that, before a following consonant, }
and y in these diphthongs were lost in the original
language; cp. the old Homeric accusatives Z^v
(§ 54) and I3&v (R vii. 238).^

TTT On some Combinations of Consonants

182. It will be observed from the tables which
follow that many combinations of original sounds
remain unchanged in Greek and Latin in all
positions — whether at the beginning, in the middle,
or at the end of a word. But, on the other hand,
a large number of sounds show a change in one, at

^ On this question a great deal has been recently written, but
aU difficulties have not yet been solved. Meringer contends {K.Z,
28, 217 ff., BB. zvi. 221 ff. and elsewhere) that in combinations
consisting of a long vowel followed by 1, tt, r, I, n, m, the second
element is dropped before a following consonant, whether within
the word itself or at the beginning of the next word. According
to others, this phonetic change depends upon accent, and this, on
the whole, seems more probable. According to Streitberg (LF.
iii. pp. 819 flf.) the long diphthong in •rfj^jia-, *^5)|f», *nd}f8, etc.,
depends on an accentual change in the primitive language, whereby
disyllabic forms of the type *dpfuos, *8^oifos, *naifos were reduced
to monosyllables. For further important conclusions that arise
from this theory op. note following § 265, and the sections on
Stem formation in Nouns.

— §183 COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS 165

least, of their elements, and others present a new
sound, altogether unlike the primitive elements, as
in the case of t, k, 6, x ^^ Greek when combined
with j (§ 197). The cause of most of these changes
is sufficiently obvious. In pronuncia- oauaeof
tion dissimilar elements approach more •■8*°^*»^o»-
nearly to one another, or become identical, because
during the production of the first, the organs of
speech are already getting into position to pro-
nounce the second; or, on the other hand, the organs
linger over the first element when they ought to
be already in position for the second. Here, as in
many other instances, the written lags behind the
spoken language. In English we write cupboard
but pronounce kub9d, limb but pronounce lim.
The popular dialect always carries this farther than
the literary language: compare the costermonger*s
Oimme, Lemme with the literary Give me, Let me.

In the majority of instances in Latin and
Greek, it is the second sound which has assimilated
the first. In many cases, however, the two lan-
guages follow a diflferent course of development.
Here, as in so many other respects, Latin presents
much less variety than Greek. The vocabulary of
Latin is much smaller than that of Greek, and the
number of combinations found in its words is very
much less. One reason for this is that, in the
middle of words, the old aspirates become identical
with the original voiced stops.

183. The chronology of assimilation requires
careful study. It is reasonably assumed by all
modem philologists that, at the same period of a

166 IMPORTANCE OF CHRONOLOGY § 183

language, the same sound, under exactly similar
conditions, will always change in the same way
Different pho- (§ 45). But a law which is active at
JJi^at^diffe^S oiie period may die out, and, in conse-
timet. quence, a combination may appear later

which was non-existent heretofore. It is only in this
way that the difference in Latin between collis ( =
*col'ni's) and volnua can be explained. If volnus
were of the same age as collis, no doubt the form
of the word would have been *vollus. But probably
volnus was originally *vols-nO'S (from the root of
vdlo = *vels-d), and it is by the loss of s, at a period
later than the change of ^col-ni-s to collis, that volnus
has arisen.^ It must be for some such reason that
we find sessus ( = *sed'tos), castus (if = *cad'tus\ and
cette ( = *cedite) in the same language, sessus follows
the oldest rule of Latin for the combination of two
dentals; castus and cette do not. Compare with
this sallo for *sald'0 (like English salt), while the
later calda "hot water" for calida remains. It
seems better to explain agmen, as compared with
eocdmen where g has been lost, as arising from
*agimen^ than with Brugmann to hold that g
disappears before m only when a long vowel pre-
cedes.

184. Again, there is no breach of phonetic law

in the appearance otfalsus, mvisi aloug-

' side of the assimilation in collum ( =

*colso-m). falsus is formed, at a later period, on

the analogy of other participles such as vorsus=^

* von Planta, Oramm. i. p. 496, n. 2.

« Stolz, Lot, Gt} § 65, 2 j Brug. Qnindr, i.^ § 768.

— § 186 AND ANALOG Y IN LANGUA GE 1 67

*vrt4o-s, where phonetic causes changed -tos into
-8U8 (§192). At the comparatively late time when
this analogical participial form origin-
ated, the old law had ceased to act. sonant in a com-

bi nation.

mtUsi, on the other hand, does not re-
present the original combination -Is-, for g has been
lost between I and s, the root being ^mtUg-.

But why should elfii represent original *esmi
while iaaev retains the original -am- ?

Logical analogy.

Here the analogy is of another type;
ia-fiiv ought to be el/iiv, as in Ionic, but the -a-
is restored by the influence of iari (cp. § 48).
So €<T7r€ipa, €<rT€ika, which represent ^eairepaa,
^iareKaa, are said to be formed on the analogy of
eveifuiy Ifj^iva ( = *€V€fjr<ra, *€fjL€v-<ra), because the
change is confined to the aorist, while the original
forms remain correctly in afcepa-eKOfjn]^, aXao*;,
rikaov, etc., and even in some aorists cKepaa,
itceKaa.

185. In other cases where there seem to be dif-
ferent changes of the same combination influence of the
in precisely similar circumstances, the JnS* sound * of
cause is often some peculiarity of root ^^"^ ^^
ending or of suffix which, in some instances, may no
longer be easily traceable. Thus in Greek many
roots end sometimes in voiced stops, sometimes in
aspirates. The difference no doubt originally
depended on the following sound, but one form has
often been carried over to other positions in which
it did not originally occur. Hence varieties of
form like Ba/JL/Seo), e'Ta<f>-ov: ^-Tul/S-ov, ef-XT/^-a:
(rrififi'd), a-arefif^'Tis. The difference in the form

168 SIMPLIFICA TION OF § 185 —

of the root w^yvvfu, as compared with Tn/ic-To-?,
is one caused purely by the fact that in the former
case a voiced, in the latter a breathed sound
foUowa Compare also ypd^-a) with ypd/S-Srjv and
ypaiT'TO'^. In pe-pig-i, as compared with pac-is,
the difference had the same origin (cp. pango).
In the same way Spa^'M ^^^ SpSy-fia " handful "
are derivatives from the same root, for the hpa')QLri
is the handful of six copper nails, or obols, which
were the primitive medium of exchange.^

1 86. In some cases the final sound of a root or
New suffix preceding suflSx becomes attached to
usTs^undofthe ^hc part which follows, and the suffix
SShmnTd «"?. is afterwards used in this form (§ 286).
*^ Thus -s- appears very often in front of
'lO' and -no-. Hence the difference between nwc-
leus and vil'la, the latter representing not *vic-la
but ^vic'da. Compare with this U-la ( = *teX'la),
cLda { = *aX'la), which is connected with af-wj/,
aX'is, and the rest, lu-na stands not for Huc-na,
which, as is shown by digniis ( = *deC'nO'S from
the same root as dec-us), would become Hugna, but
for *louC'Sna (cp. illustri8=^*iUlv/C'Stris), So also
alniLS " alder-tree " is no exception to the rule for
the assimilation of n to a preceding Z, since it
represents ^cds-no-s,

187. In both languages the doubling of a
Double consonant very rarely represents an

cousonants. original doubUug. The Homeric fcV-o-a
from the root *y«5- (§ 144) and Latin us-si are
cases where the double $ is original, but generally

^ Ridgeway, Origin of Currency and Jfeight Standards, p. 310.

— § 188 CONSONANT GROUPS 169

doubling indicates assimilation. Thus in Greek
SXKjo^ represents an original *al'jiP'8, oX-Xv-fju is
*6\-vv-fii : in Latin pello is probably ^pel-nO.

When assimilation takes place in a combination
of mutes in Greek and Latin, there is a

,"111 -I Slmpliflcation of

tendency to reduce the double to the double conao-

nants.

single consonant. This seems to indi-
cate that the double consonants were pronounced in
the same manner as they are in English and with-
out that distinct separation of the two members
which is found in Italian; compare the English
with the Italian pronunciation of ditto. Hence
*0fp-(ri, *7roB'(n, *fid-tus^ ^vid-tus, become ulti-
mately Brfo-L, iroa-i, flSMs, msus. In Latin, however,
if the vowel of the first syllable is short the double
consonant often remains : fisstcs, passus (§ 190), etc.
Compare also mlsi (^mU-si) with missum.

1 88. Although the great majority of combina-
tions are formed of two sounds, not

Groups of three

a few consist of three and some of or more couso-

nants.

four consonants. But in the classical
languages, cases where the vowel element forms
such a small proportion as in the German strumpfs
or the English strengths or twelfths are rare. The
full inflexion of Greek and Latin and their phonetic
laws, which reduce the number of final consonants
in words, permit of large combinations of consonants
only at the beginning, or more frequently in the
middle of words. Thus in Greek we find
<nfKarf')(yov, oKKTrjp, in Latin textrix, tonstrina.
When a great combination of consonants occurs,
the combination tends to be simplified, s is the

170 COMBINATIONS CONTAINING S §188 —

chief solvent in such cases, more particularly
simpiiflcationby whcu it prcccdes a nasal or liquid.
SonaJTt'^up"; Under the influence of s, many large
Hqu?d8** anS gToups of consonauts in Latin lose one
nasaia; ^^ morc members. This happens most

frequently when nasals and liquids form part
of the combination. Thus pUum, prdum, scdla,
ctUlruiy seni, siibtemen, cernuus, tostus, turdus, posco
represent ^pin-slom (cp. pinsio\ *prem'Slom, *8cant'
sld (for *scand'8lcL)f *coc-sllndf *sex-nl, *8ub'teX'men,
^cers-nuvs (cp. Koparf and cerebrum = *ceras-ro-m),
^torsttbs, *turzdu8 (English throst-le), *porC'Sco (an
inceptive from the root of prec-or and thus = ^prk-
sled). Other cases — ala, Ula^ luna, illustris, etc. —
have been already mentioned (§186). In Greek, s
is hardly less eflective. Thus Kiaro^:, heairorri^,
ScKacnrokof;, irria-a-tOy pla<rofuu, a<r/M€vo^, iaireiafiai,
€Kfji/qvo^y weia/ia, €(nr€i<ra, ttoKto, irp^irovaa re-
present *fC€V(JTO<; (cp. K€VT€Q)), ^Beva-TTOTTjf; (for
*8e/A9-7roT^9, where &/*? is a genitive, the word
being a compound = " house-lord "), *8^/caj/9-7roXo9
(where Bcteavf; is an ace. pi. governed by ttoXo^, the
whole forming an " improper " compound (§ 284) =
" judgments- wielder," "deemster"), ^imva'aa) (cp. Lat.
pinsio), ^vi-va-io-fiai (a reduplicated present from
the root j/eo*- found in viopui, voaro^), ^aFdr-a-
fuvo^ (a participial form from *sjfarf-, the root of
iJSv? and sv^vis, -S- becoming -t- before -o--^),

^ As Hffiievot should have the rough breathing to represent the
lost <rf -, Wackernagel contends ( Vemiischte Beiirage zwr Oriech.
SpracKkuruUt 1897, p. 6 n.) that the word is not connected with
*siUld- but with a root *nes- and stands for *ns-S'meno-8. Relying
on IL XX. 850 <^6yev A^iMvot 4k Oavdroio, Od. ix. 63, etc., he holds

— §189 INITIAL COMBINATIONS 171

*€<nr€v<rfjLav, *e^fif)vo^, ^TrevO-a-fia (with root of Eng.
bind), *i'<r7r€VT'<ra (-S- of (nrevhfo becoming -t-
before -<r-), *7raX-a-T0 (an s-Aorist), *7rp€7rovTia,
whence ^irpeirovaaa, Trpeirovaa, irpeirovaa.

Even with stops, s breaks up the combination ;
compare SiBda-Ka) ( = *8iBdK'(r/e(o) with (h.) containing
disco {^*di'tC'8co for Hi-dc-sco, a re- o°iy"toi»-
duplicated inceptive with the weakest form of the
root). In the Homeric aorist X^at-to ( = *X6>ic-a'-To)
-0-- itself has disappeared,and so also in &to9 ''sixth/'
as we see by comparison with the Latin sextus.

189. At the beginning of initial combinations
of consonants, «- generally remains in i^^^^
Greek if it is followed by a stop, <nr\riv, «o°»^»°«««»-
arpano^, a-KXrjpo^. In Latin, combinations where
the third element is r remain, spritvs, ginmiifled in
stratiis, scredre, but in other cases the ^**°-
third member of the combination is alone retained.
Thus to (nrXijv corresponds lien,^ and the old Latin
stlu and sUocus become lis and locus through the
intermediate stage of slls (once or twice found on
inscriptions) and ^slocus ; cp. the adverb Uico " on
the spot," which is really an adverbial phrase *t?i
sloco. It seems probable that cldvis, cldvos, Greek
KXffa, te\7)L<; " key," represent an original sM- which
is simplified to si- in the English slot (German

that either the word meant (1) rescued, (2) secure, (8) joyful, and is
connected with the Gothic ncu^an, ganisan ''rescue," or that two
originally separate words A^fievot and (Urfievos hare been confused.
Brugmann {I.F. Aru. ix. p. 11) now explains rrUrffw and pl<rffofiai
as *Triy(r<a and *ptP(rofuu without |.

' The only examples of spl- in Latin are splendeo and related
words. Their origin is not certain.

172 COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS §189 —

schlieS'Sen, schloss " enclosure," " castle/' Old Saxon
slutil " key," etc.).

1 90. Sometimes the change which a combination

of two consonants undergoes, when they
in a consonant staud bctwecn two vowcls, is dififcrent
is followed by from that which happens when they are

one or more. . 1 • . . • ^ t .

m combination with other consonants.
Thus in Latin, original -tt- became -ss- : *jfr<-^o-«
Lat. vorsiLS ; *jpt't6-8 Lat. passm, etc. But in the
combination -ttr- the change is not to -ssr- but to
'Str- ; pedestris represents an original *pedet'tri8.
The same is true of the original combination -nttr-,
thus tonstrina { = ^tont"trina from the root of
tondeo), defenstrix ( = *defenUtrix from de-fend-o)}

191. Of the combinations of two elements.
Combinations of thosc which cousist entirely of stops
two consonants. ^^ f^j. ^.^j^ remark. Their num-
bers are not very large, and, of those which can be
cited a considerable proportion are compounds with
prepositiona These, by themselves, are unsafe
guides, because such combinations are so late, com-
paratively, that the original rule may have been
quite dififerent. From the root ^keydh- found in
KevO'O), a derivative by means of the root deter-
minative 'dh' was made apparently in the primitive
Indo-CJermanic period. From the beginning the
combination -dh + dh- was simplified to -d + dh-,

^ It is possible that in these combinations the change was first
to -9r-, and that -^ was then inserted between s and r as in
English stream from rt *^ey- and sister ( = *«V€«r-). Niedermann
{£ und 1 im LeUeinischen, Dannstadt, 1897) shows (p. 19) that this
explanation is the more probable, as before three consonants Latin
changes jf to {.

— § 192 COMBINATIONS OF STOPS 173

which is represented in Greek by xvado^, in Latin
by cttstos, in Gothic by huzd} But later combina-
tions of d with dh do not change in this way. In
Latin, original dh is represented initially by /,
medially by d or 6, but af-ficio ( = ad-dh-) and ad-
do ^ (where dh- has one of its medial forms) would
be altogether misleading guides for the history of
the earlier combination.

192. Combinations of stops unless assimilated
are so diflBcult to pronounce that fre-
quent changes may be expected. The ti'ons of two
combination pt remains in Greek, but
initially loses p in Latin; hence irreXea, but tilia. In
pT0'{p)tervu8, p is dropped, apparently because the
word is a compound, for aptus, saeptus, and other
forms show that -pt- is a quite possible combination
in the middle of a Latin word. In tlkt(o there is
an interesting example of transposition. The root
is T€K', and the form of the reduplicated present
should be \l-tk'<o (cp. Trt-Trr-o) from Trer-). It
may be that, as is generally held, the analogy of
verbs like we/cTio, x^XcTrra) brought about the
change ; it is at least as likely that the rareness
of the combination and its difficulty were the
causes. It is not, however, easy to teU Difficulty of
what may or may not be found a diffi- P«>°^°c»»tton.
cult combination. Dialects of the same language
vary from one another. Thus the ordinary Greek

^ Bnigm. Orundr. i.^ § 699. The English equivalent ia Jioard,
O.E. hard, where 2 has passed into r.

^ ad-do, ctm-dOf and some other compounds of do represent not
the orijginal root *d6- in dl-Suf-fUf etc., but *dhi', the root of rf-^-pu,
$u-/t6-t, etc.

1 74 COMBINA TIONS OF STOPS § 192 —

^t^09 is in Lesbian gkI^o^ : a^k appears in Syra-
cusan as '^k. The English azk, wasp appears in Old
English both as dsdaUy wcesp, and as dcsian, weeps ;
in the Scotch dialects the combination -rs- is much
employed, cp. English grass, Northern Scotch girs
(0. Eng. gcBTs), Christian (as female proper name)
with the common Scotch form represented in Mrs.
Oliphant's Kirsteen.

In all combinations of two dentals, 'tU, -dd-,
'ddh', there seems to have been a very early change
towards a spirant sound, so that, in time, one or both
Combinations elements is reduced to -s-: Greek loro^,
of dentals. ^^^^^9, ctc., Latin visus, custos, etc.
Hence Brugmann writes these combinations -ft-,
'd'd-, 'cPdh-.

193. Much more change occurs in the combina-
comwnationsof tious of stops with spirauts, nasals, and
f *f5uo^S 8pi- liq^ds. The combinations with 5- have
""*• already been described. The initial

combinations p + s, k + s in '^Xa^oo), ft^09
(§ 192) are doubtfully assigned to the early period.
The only serious difficulty here is as to the original
sounds represented by kt-, (f>6', yO- in Greek, where
an equivalent to Greek words with these initial sounds
appears in Sanskrit with Ich- ; /ereipo) is paralleled
by the Sanskrit k^an-, '^(dmv by k^dj(m), <f>6l'V<o by
k$l-nd'ti, re/cToP' by tak^an-. This has led to the
suggestion that there was an sh (^) or th (>) sound
(§ 113, 2) in the original language distinct from the
ordinary s or t. No certain conclusion can as yet
be arrived at. In Latin, according to Osthoff, super
as compared with inrkp and Sanskrit upari has s as

§ 194 WITH SPIRANTS AND NASALS 175

the weak form of ex. The combinations of stops
with nasals and liquids present more (m.) a following
variety. In both languages a labial is °*~^*
assimilated to a following m. Latin avoids the
combination of a dental with m in any position,
while it changes -cm- into -gm- {segmentum, but
seccire). Combinations of a stop with n present no
difficulty in Greek; labialised velars follow the
changes of the sounds into which they have passed
whether labials or dentals. Initial fiv- ( = *3^w-)
becomes fiv ; fwdofuiL " I woo " is the verb to ySai/a
"woman" (§ 140, a), ip€fi'v6^ is from the root of
Ipefi'O^ (from a root ^reg^-).

194. In Latin, the development of dentals
followed by a nasal presents great difficulties. The
history of -tn-, in particular, has given rise to
much discussion in recent years: not

1 1 T/w» I'll '^iiii'** -tn- in Latin.

only do di£rerent philologists hold dif-
ferent theories, but even the same philologist has
more than once held different theories at different
times on this question, which is of especial interest
as concerning the history of the Latin gerund and
gerundive participle. Thurneysen, who originated
the discussion,^ started from tendo, which he re-
garded as a reduplicated verb from the root of ten-eo,
*te'tn-o becoming ^te-dn-o, *tendno, tendo. The
theory has not met with permanent acceptance,
though no other explanation offered for terido seems

^ In K,Z, 26, pp. 301 ff. Most of the supporters of this theory,
including its author, have now given it up. Brugmann, after
accepting it to explain the origin of the gerund (A.J. P. viii. pp.
441 ff.), has now discarded it {OrufyiriaSy Verb-flexion, § 1108).

176 LA TIN CHANGES IN COMBINA TIONS § 194 —

very plausible.^ Other words explained on this
theory can be equally well explained otherwise.
Thus pando ia now connected with the root seen
in Lith. spand-yti and Umbr. spafu ( =pansum)
instead of with pat-eo} As regards the treatment
of original -dn- in Latin, there is also

•<l». in Latin. , , , ^, , , • i -^ n

much doubt. The old identincation of
the second part of 'AXoa-vS-vrf with unda seems
plausible ; if correct, metathesis has occurred here
also. How then are mercennarius { = *merc€d'
TidHus) and the Plautine dispennite ( = dispendite)
to be explained ? For the former, it is possible to
assmne that the suffix was not -n5- but -snd-; if
so, the first stage was by assimilation of d to s,
^mercetsndrivs, whence ^mercesndrius, mercennarius,
aapenna, comes from ^pet-snd. On the other hand,
Brugmann contends' that -tn-, -dn- regularly be-
come -nn-, so that pen-na, mercen-narivs are quite
regular. The Plautine form can be easily explained
as a vulgar assimilation (§ 182).

195. The treatment of original kn in Latin is
curious. Initially the guttural disappears (nldor
= *cnldor, probably through the intermediate stage
*gnldor\ medially the breathed sound
becomes voiced and the vowel also is
affected. Thus from ^dec-no-s (cp. dec-et, dec-us)
comes dignus (pronounced dir?nus, § 127 n.);

^ Two of these may be mentioned: (1) that in te7ido nj has
become nd, a theory held by Curtius (cp. § 487 a, note 1) ; (2)
thatch is a ''root extension" (Lindsay, L.L. 486).

^ Yet spatium (if not borrowed from the Doric eirddiop) and
possibly spes form intermediate links between the forms.

» Grwndriss, i.* p. 676.

— § 197 STOPS AND LIQUIDS 177

tignum may represent "'^tec-no-m (from root of
T€KTov-, etc.), but it is equally probable that the
Romans themselves were right in connecting it with
tego directly. Thus, according to the definition of
the jurist Grains, tignum is "wood for building,"
while lignum is " wood for gathering," " firewood,"
from lego,

1 96. Of the combinations of stops with a follow-
ing Z, Greek presents a great variety, oombinationa
It seems possible that initial dl-in Greek gy.j'^^'^onow.
became 7X- in y\vfcv<; as compared with *^8»q»iid.
the Latin didcis. Latin changed medial -tl- into -cl-
and 'dhl' into -hi- in the suffixes -do- (-culo-) and
'blo' {'hulo') respectively. Medial -g- disappeared
in Latin before -Z- without leaving any trace, the
preceding vowel not even being lengthened. stUus
without doubt is from the root of arlr/'iui, etc.
Initial t- is dropped in Latin before -Z- ; tXt/to?
(rXaTo?) and Idtv^ (participle to tollo, 0. Lat. tvlo,
and tuli) are the same word. Original -dr- became
in Latin -<r-;^ taedet, but taeter {taetro-), uter
{^^utris) " skin -bottle," cp. vhpLa. Similarly
in borrowed words KeSpty;, but citrus ^ ; Oscan Aderl.
appears in Latin as Atella "Blacktown" ( = *Atro4a,
cp. ager, § 147). -dhr- becomes -6r- in Latin,
rubro' ( = ipvOpo-) ; fla-hrur-m has the same suffix
as Kky-Opo-v (§ 389).

197. The combinations of stops with a foUow-

* Wharton, Eiyma Latino, pp. 125, 181 ; Thumeysen, K,Z, 32,
pp. 562 ff.

' Greek d is, however, sometimes represented by Latin t in
borrowed words when no r-soond follows ; cp. Kv^tavLa " quince,"
Lat. coUmea.

N

178 COMBINATIONS OF STOPS § 197 —

ing } are in Greek fertile in change& In Latin,
except in the initial combination dy^
of stops with where the -j-sound expels the d alto-
gether {JoviSy Old Latin Diovis), the -j-
becomes vocalised or disappears * (cp. medius with
sptbo = *spjtl-j5). In Greek t, k, 0, x followed by
j are represented by -<ro-- (Attic -tt-); compare
Xlaco^i with \iti^,^ Saae with octUiis, fiiaao^
(later fUaosi) with medius, iXdaacov with iKaxv^-
It is, however, to be noticed that -t*-, -^t- are not
parallel in their history to -te^ and -xi-, for -aa-
arising from -t^-, -O^- becomes -<r- in Attic o<ro9
(*iTirO^, Homeric oaao^), fiiao^, etc. In the dental
change, therefore, the resulting -<r<r- must have
had a different sound from -<ro--, which developed
from a guttural followed by j. But analogy affected
various series of forms. Thus feminine forms con-
taining the suffix 'ffl, comparatives with the suffix
-to)!/, and presents with the suffix -acd retain -<r<r-
(-TT-) without regard to its origin. Hence we find

^ The view, first propounded by Thumeysen {K,Z. 32, p. 566)
and accepted by most authorities, that in Latin medial -^^i- passes
into -}}- seems to me still doubtful, even with Sommer's limitation
(/. F, xi. p. 82) to cases where a long vowel follows. The examples
relied upon are few, baitUuSt caiare, peior, htna^ Tnmalis, raia, and
one or two others more uncertain ; in no case is the etymology free
from doubt ; some are clearly slang words and the others are of
rare occurrence, so that their history, with our present knowledge,
cannot be traced.

' The Megarian's 0-d fiAp ; in Aristophanes, Achamians, 757,
does not stand for rl ivfpf \ as explained by Liddell and Scott ; <r6.
is the plural ( = *rj[-a), co- not being written initially, irip-ia is
explained by Brugmann as from a root *Q>9^. irpvrl and irpfn
(=:*T/)orj^) were originally parallel forms, irfwri appearing before
consonants, ^ftpor^ before vowels ; hence came irpot(t).

— § 198 WITH CONSONANT I AND U 179

in Attic fieKvna (*ft€XtT-ia), /cpeirriov, ipirra}}
8t and yi become f: Zev? (§ 181, 5) and
art f ft) (§ 142). pi became ttt^; hence wtoX*?,
iTToXefio^, which seem to have arisen from a
dialectic pronunciation ; compare the American
pronimciation of car as ct/ar. In verbs (^^aXcTTTo),
etc.), -TTT- for -J3J- is regular throughout Greek.
It is a question what was the original form of the
Latin suflBx -bus in the dative and ablative plural.
In Sanskrit the corresponding form is -hhyas, which
may represent an original ^-hhjps or ^-hhipTns. It
seems therefore probable that Latin -btts should
represent the same original form. But the Gaulish
imrpefio { = matrihu8\ the suffix of which goes
closely with the Latin, is against the identification.

198. One or two of the combinations
of stops with -j^ present difficulties.

In Greek t}^ initially became a- ; hence rFi aca
of the second personal pronoun becomes i,^itiai ty^ in
0-6, and from this or some similar case ^"®*'
form, the nominative <tv for rv was formed. Some
other words which have initial a- possibly show the
same origin; thus aalp(a "sweep," atopo^ "heap"
may be *t^r^ and *r\i^po^ and connected with the
Lithuanian tveriiL "enclose, pack together." The
name of the Homeric shield covered with hide
{acLKosi) is of the same origin as the Skt. tvojc- " hide."
In the suffix -avvo of fivrjfjM'O-vvo^;, etc., which sedhis

^ Brugmann, OrundrisSf i.^ p. 276 n. ; Lagercrantz, Zur griech.
SpraehgeschiehU (Upsala Uniyereitets Arsskrift, 1898), which ia a
full discassion of Greek 0*0*, rr, and j* and their values.

' The relation between xr- in xruta and <f>0' in ^Tt-^^iJ^-w, if
both come from the same root, is not yet cleared up.

1 80 COMBINA TIONS OF SPIRANTS § 198

identical in origin with the Skt. -tvana- (cp. § 401),
we find the influence of -ti^' in the weak form,
precisely as av owes its origin to aL Medially
'ty^' becomes -o-o-- (-tt-) ; thus Teaa-ape^ = q^et]f'.

In Latin initial q was lost before ^ in vap-or as
utin 7 lost bo- Compared with Greek xair-vo^, Lith.

forev. kvap-as. This combination must be
carefully distinguished from the original labialised
velar qV (which becomes in Latin qu, c). On the
other hand, % became qu in eqvos and probably
quer-or ; and so probably did q^, though examples
are uncertain.

199. The next group of sounds which calls for
Combinations spccial uoticc is that in which a spirant
etm^nt* tadlri ^^ the first element. As has been
spirant. already mentioned, original z occurred

only in combination with voiced sounds; hence «
and z must be considered together. The history of
the combinations with stops is sufficiently obvioua
One combination of 5 with a stop is of interest,
ti^o) and sldo may both represent a reduplicated
present of the root *sed' (^si-zd-o), ni-dus ( = *m-
zd-us) " the sitting down place " is the same word as
Eng. nest (§143). zd represents the weak form of
the root exactly as -)8S- in eirl'^h-ai represents the
weak form of the root found in ped- ttoB-.

In Latin, s preceding original bh is said to dis-
appear both initially and medially ; hence fucvs =
<r0^f , sedlbtts = *sedeS'bh', But it is more probable
that fucvs is from the same root as Eng. bee, re-
presenting an original *6Aoi-£o-5, while sedi-bus
arises from the influence of the -i-stems.

— § 201 WITH CONSONANT I AND U 181

200. In combination with a following j, the 5
sound in a Greek word became weakened

. , »i in Greek.

or assmiilated. Hence from -osjfi the
old genitive of -o-stems we obtain first -oio as in
Homer, next, by dropping % -oo, which has to be
restored, e,g, in 'tXiov wpoirdpoiOe (II. xv. 66) which
wiU not scan, and lastly by ordinary contraction,
-ft) in the severer Doric, -ov in the milder Doric,
Attic, and Ionic dialects.

201. The treatment of <r^ whether initial or
medial presents the same kind of diffi-

1 . -1 -rm • 1 «if in Greek.

culties as rjf- above. What is the
relation between u9 and <ri)9 ? We must suppose
that both words are of the same origin. How then
can we explain the existence of two diflTerent forms
under the same circumstances ? It is conjectured
that, while 5? is the legitimate representative of
original *8iis (§ 168), the form crS^ has developed
from a genitive form *<rF'0^ where a was regularly
retained. But if so, why does €Kvp6<;, Lat. socer,
represent an original 5jf- merely by the rough
breathing ? Here there is a difl&culty which has
not as yet been satisfactorily solved. The history
of the change was that s^- changed first to a breathed
^sound (English wh-), and passed thence to the
breathing ; cp. English who. Medially sy^ became,
according to some authorities,^ -<ro-- ; more probably
the consonants disappeared and the preceding vowel
was lengthened.^ Thus to9 "arrow" ( = *^o--fo-)
would have the stronger form of the suflBx which is

» G. Meyer, Cfr. Or.* § 268.

^ Bragmann, Orundriss, i.^ p. 314.

182 HISTORY OF SPIRANTS §201

found in Skt. i^-u-s " dart." In Latin medial -s-
was lost before -2^. The preceding

^ in Latin. - , ,, , , , ,

vowel was probably lengthened, but
this lengthening disappeared before a following
vowel. The Latin 'priil'Mi will then represent
*pnf5yz7ia (with the intermediate stages *pnljfzwa,
^'prulna) from the same root as Eng. freeze, Goth.
frius " frost." Minerva represents an older ^Mmes-
lui with vowel u} In these forms, as in others
with ^, Latin changes ye into 0, hence socer, soror
( = *$vesOr\ eta

202. In both languages 8, whether initial or

medial, when followed by a nasal or

Loos of s before ,..,,. . , , .

nasals and liquid, disappears or is changed into
some other sound without being fully
assimilated to the succeeding sound. The only
exception to this is in one or two Greek words
beginning with a^i- : afjuxpo^ (but fuxpo^), afiepivo^
English smart, etc These forms have probably an
explanation similar to that of the variation between
<TT€709 and Tiyo<: (see below, § 237).

203. The combination sr becomes in Greek pp
«• in Greek, ^y the assimilation of the first to the

second element. Initially this appears

«• in Latin. ^ ^^le breathed r (p); pern represents

an original *sr«jf-5. The history of sr in Latin is

more uncertain. The common belief at present is

that initial sr is represented in Latin by /r.

Undoubtedly medial -sr- became -6r-.

(o) Initially. ^« . . . , "^ , , . ,

Of mitial sr- however, which was a rare
combination, very few examples are cited: frlgus
^ Solmson, Siud, z. laL LautgeschichU, pp. 137, 165.

— § 204 IN COMBINATION WITH LIQUIDS 183

( = plyo^\ frdgum ( = paf ). On the other hand,
some good authorities contend that in Latin as in
Greek s disappears. But on this side, as on the
other, the argument turns upon a few uncertain
examples. The name Roma has often been con-
nected with the root *sre]^ found in pico and the
English stream, but the etymology of this as of
many other proper names is very doubtful There
is nothing to decide between the claims of rigor
and of fflgus to represent pjyo^, for analogy from
the treatment of medial -sr- is an unsatisfactory
argument and a change in the quantity of a vowel,
more particularly of an i-vowel, is found elsewhere
(cp. Lat. vir with Skt vlras). The last discussion
of the subject — by H. Osthofif^ — ^although citing
more supposed cases of initial r in Latin for original
sr-, is by no means conclusive (cp. § 237).

204. The history of medial -sr- in Greek is less
clear, for 'pp- in compounds and after
the augment as in e-ppeov from rt. srey,-
may follow the analogy of initial sr-, which first
by assimilation became pp- and finally p. Other
examples as rprfpoiv ( = ^rpa^-prnv, *tr8- from rt. of
Tp€{a)a)) and Attic vav-Kpa-po-^ (Kpaa-- "head")
" ship-captain " ^ are rare and uncertain. In Latin
medial -sr- always becomes -6r-. Of this there are
many examples: *52?esrtnos " sister's child," "cousin"
becomes sobrinus; cerebrum is *cer98-rO'm (see §
188); funebris is ^funes-ri'S. The adverb temere,
literally " in the dark," has connected with it the

1 MM.y.^V 62 ff.

2 Solmsen, K,Z, 29, p. 348 ; Rh. Mu$, 53, pp. 137 ff.

1 84 CONSONANT COMBINA TIONS § 204 —

substantive tenebrae ( = *temsrae) but the cause of
the change of m to ti in tenebrae is not clear.

205. In the Greek medial-combinations -fur-,
combinationB 'V<^'y "O- was assimilated to -/A-, -1/-.
2em?nu/(i?ri Acolic Greek remained at this stage,
na*ai or liquid. ^^^ ^^^^^ lengthened the previous

vowel and used only one consonant (§ 219). Thus,
from the original aorist forms *€-i/e/i-<ra, efievtra
come in Aeolic eve^ifxa, efiewa, in Attic evei/juiy
€fjL€iva, where -et- is not a diphthong (§ 122). The
history of the final combinations is different. Here
-9 remains and the nasal disappears, with or with-
out compensatory lengthening of the vowel (§ 248):
Tifid<; (for Tifidv<;, § 218), oIkov^, eU (e?) for ei/-9, etc.
Medial -p<r- -\<r- remained (§ 184) but -per- was
changed in pure Attic to -pp- : aptrqv (apprjv), etc.
In both Latin and Greek, m whether sonant or con-
sonant becomes n before j (cp. ^aivoD, venio =
*g^7a}p; koivo^ for *KOfi'isp^^ connected with latin
cum " with " ; and quoniam for qtu)m jam).

206. In Greek initial mr- becomes fip-; cp.

fipoTo^ from the same root as mortutis

and the Corcyraean fiapva-fievo^ ( =

*/3pava') the participle to pApvafuiv. Medially in

Greek -mr- remains, inserting, however, ^ between

a and p: a-afiporo'^, etc. The history

mr in Latin. V.,,. ^^ /T '\. • t .• • ^-n

of this combination m Latin is stiU a
matter of dispute. Osthoff contends^ that initifd
mr- is represented by /r- in fremo ( = )8/}e/x«),
/return akin to /Spda-a-co, frutex to fipvao, fragor to

^ For the epenthesis see below (§ 207).
« M.U, V. pp. 85 ff.

§ 207 NASALS AND LIQUIDS 186

efipa'xe ; medial -mr- he finds in hibernos = *X€t/t-
piv6<:, which could stand to the ordinary y(€ifi€pLv6<;
as fleer} fi^pivof; does to rifjLepivo^, The first stage of
change would be from ^heimrinos to *hlbriniis
which becomes hibermis exactly as *si'Crino be-
comes sS-cerno. tuber Osthoff considers akin to
tu-meo, etc., and to Skt. H-m-ras.

207. The treatment of nasals and liquids in
Greek when followed by i is also de-

^ . . , Naaals and li.

servinff of notice m another respect, quids followed

-rr^. , , . -, 1 . , by -1- in Greek.

With nasals j produces epenthesis, by
which is meant that the j following the nasal dis-
appears but an j-sound is introduced into the pre-
ceding syllable. The process by which this takes
place is in two stages: (1) the nasal sound is
weakened through the influence of the following j
and (2) in turn acts upon the vowel before it. The
sonant and consonant forms of the nasals are
treated exactly alike: compare ^aivm with kolv6<:
(§ 205), KTeLvcD (*#cT€i/-ttt)) with TCKTaiva (^TeKTrtja),
If there is a group of consonants, it is simplified ;
hence hia-irowa { — '^^iecT'iroTvi-a), On the other
hand, medial -X + j- becomes -X\-; cp. crreXXei)
(*<TTe\-tft)) with PaXK(o ( = *qmfi)} The treatment

* The attempt of Johannes Schmidt (PlurcUhUdungen der idg,
Neutroj p. 198) to connect Eng. liver and its cognates in other
Germanic languages with Skt ydkrtf Gk. ^ap, lAt,jecur, by postu-
lating an original initial combination U- is extremely doubtful.
The same scholar explains in a similar manner the Homeric
numeral ta {K.Z, 36, pp. 391 ff.). From the fact that fda is
common in Homer in nom. and ace., but is found only once in gen.
and not at all in dat., while on the other hand fa is more common
in gen. and dat., Schmidt contends that the original declension was
^smia, smiam, smjclSj smfiif whence in Gk. fxla, fjUap, but IrjSj l^. He

186 CONSONANT I AND U § 207— § 208

of /5 + 1 depends on the character of the preceding
vowel. After a and o epenthesis takes place :
fioKaipay fjLolpa ( = *fiop-ijei) ; after e, l, and v assimi-
lation o{ ito p^: thus pp as in Lesbian 4>0€ppoi>.
In other dialects the lengthening is transferred from
the consonant to the vowel; hence Arcadian ^di^pco,
Ionic and Attic ^OeLpoi. Similarly oUrfpci} (-Tip-
ffl)), 7rop-<f>vp'a) ('<l>vp'Uo). But with sonant r epen-
thesis takes place : tnraipto ( = *spr^),

2o8. Combinations of y, with j occur in a small
number of words : /cXi;© " shut " = */cXaf -*©, whence
*Kkdi'Fo), kX^co, kXtjo). In Latin cap-tlvus may
possibly have a sufl&x representing original 'teujft-s,
Skt. -tavya-,

regards the solitary IQ (neuter), lU yi. 422, and the same form found
twioe on the great inscription of Gortyn (§ 644), as analogical for-
mations, efs, etc., being the proper masculine forms. Similarly
Wackemagel ( Vermischte Beitrage, pp. 37 ff.) defends the derivation
of diaroiva from *S€ff-voTVjfa given above, and supposes that voival
as an epithet of the Furies is an euphemism '' Our Ladies " and the
plural to mirvia with the difference of accent seen in A7i/ia, d7vta/,
and a few other words.

272.

4

o o *
§ II

« o

■-11

o

I— I

EH

o
a

o

o
a

o

3

«a

ia

S-l

I?

s

'■V-Bg'

'S

ititH

«

III

»Cv a I

« II fl *

e
:3s

I

«

!

-till

ills

is

K

i

si

Z, «e M PQ o.* OB t«

1^1

h

I

-A

Is

111

r?4

i2» ^^

Hill

Pi

Ml

= s-?

il

•S°£g

vl

fills 8

L-8

H

II

35

*sfe

si

ill

li4.->

II

il

fill'

Lull

'^ >"^ 8 of

DISS'S

n

n

-3-S

II

|5f I fr,

i:

li

rii

S

11 ^1

U'

ii

iiii

i%

ill!

5f!

^3

e e

if

I

S-g

s e

m

fii

2 A?

S ^ « a

llJil

3 o •« • .

11

Q.0

•5?f

»7 C85" .

a.|

I.

I!

in

iiS II

j.A^ II

li'Il

if

^1

^• ^

ilil

•||

HH

111!

11.11

lll-fei

3^

I:

■Ills

e:= a

9 g g3

liri

^ e« JL r

1

'S II w's i-g

III
111

I

Si

I f

>-<'2'SS 7

Q
II

&d

ll

axil

I£F

2 « Po

2 a.
2.3

r4«

f IS

a

s^**

T 5

1112 =

CCS

I 5

i I) 1

I i^H n?

1 *5

I' is

eHsJ

I La

'v. '*

t

i

.g«j.

If a

If si

e 3
14 ill

I 11

.5 *;;5^

:S8

•^ > "^

Ji

s^ o e •

1 ^

11

d

.1-1

lis

1=

^6

ii

g 8

§209 VOWEL CONTRACTIONS 193

Xm. On some other Sound Changes

1. Contraction of voweld.

209. The certain contractions which go back to
the original Indo-Germanic language
are few in number and, m some cases, in the indo.Q«r-
the nature of the component elements
in the contraction is not easy to ascertain. The
best authenticated original contractions are those of
stems ending in a vowel with a case suflBx be-
ginning with a vowel, because the contraction m
original vowel of the suffix can be ***^ ^*^^* ■^*-
discovered where it appears with consonant stems.
Thus from *dcy^-\-a\ came the dative form *ekydi
of the feminine *ekyd " mare," whence the latin
eqtuie (§ 181, 1) ; from the stem *ek]fO + ai came the
dative form *ekj(d^ of the masculine *eA-j^-s. That
the original dative ending was -aj is shown by
such survivals as the old Greek infinitives iofievai
and hovvaL, which represent the dative of original
-men- and -j^w- stems, ^do-men-aj^ and ^do-y^en-ai.
Similarly *^jd + es and '*^eJc^o-\-es of the nomi-
native plural were contracted into *dc\id8 and ^dq^ds
originally. These forms have no representatives
in Greek and Latin, but the Sanskrit and the forms
of the Oscan and Umbrian, Gothic and (for the
feminine) the Lithuanian show that these were the
original forms replaced in Greek and Latin by the
endings at, ov ; ae, I {pe) respectively. The nature
of the original ending is shown by the ending of

0

194 CONTRACTIONS OF VOWELS §209 —

the masculine and feminine consonant stems iroi-
/i6i/-69, etc^

The combination of o with another o is illus-
trated by the genitive plural of o-stems

ContractiOD in a ^ m f 9 mi

the genitive pia- elcuo + dm = ekuOm, iTnrcDv divum. The

ml and locative. "^ y if T 4. • • 4.

locatives ot/cei, ot/coi, Lat. mci, represent
the old combination of the e : 0 stems with the
locative suffix -i seen in ttoS-i, Jjit ped-e (§ 165),
etc.

The augment with verb forms illustrates the
Contraction with Combination of e with a and e. ^^-ag-
the augment bccomcs ^^-, Attic frfov, ^+«rf- becomos
««?-, Attic fia-Otov from the root of Latin ed-o (cp.
Lat. es-t for *ed-t),^ S+ei- became ii-, whence Gk.
^a " I went " from elfu.

2 1 o. The contractions in Greek and Latin need
Contractions in ^ot detain us long. The ordinary con-
Greekand Latin, tractions of vowcls are given in the
following table. Those which arise by the loss
of an original consonantal sound between the
vowels deserve somewhat more attention. The
number of such contractions seems to be greater in
Greek than in Latin, because in Greek the number
of important consonantal elements certainly lost
between vowels is greater. But as the history of
Latin is so imperfectly known to us in this matter,
as^ in so many others, it is impossible to give the
same details as for Greek.

^ The long 9 of homings is a later development (§ 223).
^ eqtiorum has a different origin (§ 819).

' The Latin perfects egi^ edi are more probably formed like ee^,
Udi than examples of augmented types d+a§-, 4+ed',

— § 212 LOSS OF SEMI-VOWELS 195

211. In both languages the most frequent
source of such contractions is the loss

of j; T/)6A9, tres both go back to an ori-
ginal *^r«J65; compare also 7ro\€t9, ot?es = *7roX-e3(-e«,
^ov-ejres} Brugmann contends^ that in Ionic and
Attic the close ^-sound (et) resulting from contrac-
tion became open (17) before a following e or t and
was represented by €i only before a- and o-sounds ;
hence in Homer rek'^ei^ (^rekea-Fevr's:), but reKeio^,
later Ti\eo^ (^Tekecr-Fo-s:), and similarly the post-
Homeric /cXi??^ (*/cX€f ecr-tfo)). In classical Greek
the dropping of j is still active ; hence the scansion
of ToiovTo^f 7roi& with the first syllable short. The
second part of the diphthong, however, is not lost here,
but in pronunciation the word seems to be divided,
not as Toi'OVTOf;, etc., but as to-*outo9, etc. (§ 245).

212. In Homeric Greek the loss of the jf-soimd
represented by F was so recent that

* "^ Lous of ».

hiatus generally marks its original posi-
tion, and in many dialects it survived throughout
the classical period. The F was altogether lost in
Attic Greek, and contraction takes place, in the
verb, between the augment and the vowel sound
which was originally preceded by the digamma.
This contraction could not have been early, other-

* In the verb, the 1st person sing, of denominative verbs like
rcftd-<tf, plarUo ; ^X^-w, etc. , probably did not have originally the -j^o-
suffix (cp. § 172 n.), but like the 2nd and 3rd persons added on the
personal ending directly to the stem : *Tijud-/u, •n/id-o'i, ViAio-ri, cp.
Lat. 2nd and 3rd persons, plantHs, planta-L rt/ud-w, etc , came in
apparently on the analogy of genuine d-verbs like <f>4pu) and the
causatives ipop4ii>, etc

a LF. ix. pp. 158 flF.

196 ANAPTYXIS IN LATIN § 212 —

wise we should have found not et-, which is the
contraction e,g, in etkKov ( = *^-j^«/2'om), but ^-, as in
Tja-'Ocov. teoiXo^ is possibly for /cof-t-\o9, cp. Latin
cav'um. In Latin the absolute loss of |^ is rare, but
latrina = Havatrina, jHcundus = *jum'cundus}

213. In Greek SauXo9 "shaggy," rpavko^
Loss of -cr- In " lispiug " are possible but uncertain

Greek. examples of contraction after loss of
-<T-, cp. Saarv^, rprfpcuv (§ 204).

214. In Latin not a few contractions arise from
LoB8of-fc-in ^I^® loss of h between similar vowels;

^^°' hence nihil becomes nil (cp. English
not^no-ivhit), *ne'hemo becomes mmo, *hi-1iimus
" two winters old " Hmus, etc.

2. Anaptyxis.

215. By this term is meant the development of
a vowel between two consonants. The first of the
two consonants is generally a stop, the second a
nasal or liquid. Anaptyxis occurs in both Latin
Anaptyxis in ^ud Greek, in Latin being especially
Lafin <to.. frequent between c and I To this is
due the vowel between c and / in such words as
saecvlum, periculum, poculum. But it has been
recently proved^ that in this case a confusion has
arisen between -do- the Latin development of -tlo-
(§196) and the double sufl&x -co-/o-,and that this con-

^ In Latin poetry v in the perfect is not unfrequently lost with
consequent contraction: stiemWf Lucr. i. 60, 301, iv. 869 ; consuemus,
Propert i. 7. 5 ; fiemus, ii. 7. 2, etc.

' By W. M. Lindsay, Classical Hemeto, vi p. 87.

ich are generally cited are

oUdw ( = cUd6a = *aido8Tp,).
cogere.

promere.

8rf\uT€ (=8iyX6i7Tc).
coepi (=co + *epi, perfect whose
pto. is aptti8).

dd/iw (Doric) '= di/j/iov,
copia ( = co + op- from the stem
found in op-enif etc.).

coram ( = co + *6rara).

Ttdl-oio (Homer) whence tcSIov.
I proin.

.bet was spelt with £, which then
racts into «, but in the " milder "
[To face p. 196.

§ 216 ANAPTYXIS IN GREEK 197

fusion belongs to the classical period, for in Plautus
-clO' which represents -tlo- is always scanned as a
monosyllable. Apart from this series

« , . . T • Anaptyxis m

01 examples, anaptyxis m Latin appears foreign words in
most commonly in foreign words:
drachuma {ipa')Qiri\ Alcumena (^ AXxfi^vrj), techina
(rixpr)), mina (fiva), Patricoles (IlaTpOKXrj<;), Aescu-
lapius (^AaKXrf7n6(;), With r, anaptyxis occurs in
several genuine liatin words, ager.

J ^, , . J 1 J Anaptyxis in

cerjw, sacerdos, the er being developed native words in
out of an earlier r (§ 147); with I,
apart from the suflBx -cZo- above, the most common
instances are the sufi&x -bio- which appears as -bulo-
{sta-hvlum, etc.), and occasional variants like
discipvlina and extempulo. The history of sum,
sumus, humus, and volup is not clear.^

2 1 6. Many of the Greek instances are also
uncertain, it being possible in many Anantyxisin
cases that the vowel was developed ^"^®^-
before the separate life of Greek began.^ As
examples the following may be cited. With X,
^aXa beside y7uLKTO(f>arfo^, aXeyeivo^ beside aXr/eivo^ ;
with p, ^dparfxp^ (cited from Hipponax) beside
^parfxpf;, apa^vXai (quoted by Hesychius) beside
apfivXai, The examples with nasals are less
certain. e^So/A-0-9 is supposed by some to re-
present an original *septm'0'S; a^evo^; "riches"
has for its adjective d(f>v€i6<;,^

^ For farther examples see Schweizer-Sidler, Ghumm, d. Lot.
Spraehe, § 47. sum has probably a thematic vowel — *8-0'm (§ 453).

2 Bmgmann, Gr. Gr.'^ % 29.

' For further examples see G. Meyer, Or. Or.^ §§ 94-97. Some
of the examples are tmcertain ; IfkvOoy contains the weak grade of

198 TRANSFERENCE OF LENGTH §217

3. Compensatory lengthening of vowels.

2 1 7. The loss of consonants discussed in Chapter
XII. is often accompanied by a lengthening of the
vowel of the preceding syllable.^ The -et- and -ov-
which appear in Greek under these circumstances
represent not a diphthong but an ^ and u sound
respectively (§ 122).

(a) Lengthening of vowels in Greek.

218. a. iraaa for irdvaa (still found in Cretan)
Lengthening ^OJR an earlier *iravTUi, raXd^ for

**'*• rdXav-^, rifid^ for rifidv^;. In the last
instance, although the vowel of the nominative is
-17 ( = original -a), the vowel of the accusative
plural must have been -a-, as otherwise we must
have had ^ri^rjs not n^^? aTi]\7f, in other
dialects oTaXKa and ardXdy shows compensatory

the root seen in the Homeric pft. ttKijKovBa, and fut {\€(Kronai ;
hence Johansson {LF. viii. p. 182) separates -ffKyOov from the Doric
fpfBoVf which he connects with dy-i^Ko^e, etc., and the Pali verb
a7uih4Ui *' goes," Ital. andare, and regards ffKdop as a hybrid between
them.

^ Compensatory lengthening is a name not altogether appropriate.
What happens is really a transference of length from the consonant
to the sonant part of the syllable. Thus we may represent the
length of the Indo-6. word *yid'tx>'8 by w v^ s^ of which i has only
one v^ ; when it becomes vis%is in Latin the total quantity of the
word remains the same, but i is now long (w w).

* The Greek rule on this point was that a vowel before a nasal
or a liquid or } or )f foUowed by an explosive or 8 became short
(§ 227).

FROM CONSONANTS TO VOWELS 199

lengthening for the loss of the second consonant,
which itself came probably from an earlier -vd
suffix *<rTdK'vd. /caXo9 in Homer has the lengthen-
ing, because it represents an earlier ^/caX-Fo-^;.
In this case Attic has no lengthening, /caXo9.
Compare with this aX\o9 ( = *aX-to-9), the -X\-
of which was apparently later since Cyprian has

219. 6. The lengthening arising from the loss
of consonants is written after 403 B.c. Lengthening
as e*. €V€t/jLa for *€V€fiaa, efieiva for °'**
*€/x€i/<ra,^ raOeuTi for ^raOivrac, eU for *5em-s
(but heairoTq^ for *S6/Lt-9-7roTi79, § 188), 6t9 for
€V-9 (§ 246). The cause of the lengthening in
fiei^oDV, Kpeiaa-oDv is not certain. Attic fei/09
(Ionic fetx/09 is used in Attic poetry) shows no
compensation for the loss of F in the combination

220. 0. expvai for exovrc (3rd pi. of present) and
*€xovT-aL (dat. pi. of participle), exovaa Lengthening
for VxovTui, fxovaa for *fjLovTta (Doric ofo.''«»<iv.
fi&(ra), Xirirov^ for Xinrov^, Homeric yovv6<i, Sovpo^
represent *yovF'0^, *SopF'0^, Kovpo<; = *KopFo-<;, but
in Attic 0/309 " boundary " = Corcyrean 6pFo<; ;
Povkoiiai apparently represents *fioX-vo'fmi (cp.
§ 140, 6).

Examples for i and v are less common: t6<;
(*la-Fo'^, § 201), etcpipa (^e-Kptv-aa)'^ evOvvav,
aor. inf. (^evOvv-aai).

Some lengthenings, aOdvaro^, i7n]fio\o^, ovvofia,
seem to be used for metrical reasons only.

^ For (<rT€i\a, iiftOeipa, see § 184.

200 LENGTHENING OF VOWELS § 221 —

(6) Lengthening of vowels in Latin.

221. Cicero tells us that -ns and -nf always
Latin vowels Diade a preceding vowel long. Priscian
ISJn^cSSfsonan? adds that -gn- had the same effect, but
combinations, j^-g statement is not borne out by the
history of the Romance languages.

222. a. haldre is said to represent an older
LengUieningof * cinrsld-Te from the root of an-imu-s,

^^^^ qiialum "work basket" is for *quaS'
lo-m, scdla for *8cant'Sla (§188), major for *7nah'jpT,
equds for earlier ^eqwdins,

223. e. vesica for vensica, cena for ^scedsnd}
Lengthening of «^^^ {^^^dies-u-), vei^num literally

Latin e. " love-potiou " for *jf«nes-no-m, tela
for *teX'la, totiss beside totiens, etc. The long e
of hominBs, pedis, etc., does not originate in this
way but simply follows the analogy of the i-stems,
avis ( = *aV'ei'es), etc.

224. 0. pOmerium for *poS'7nerium, pdno for

Lengthening of *PO'SnO (cp. pO-Sui, oldcr pO-Slvi), CdSOl

lAtino, frequent in inscriptions for constU
(§127 n.), co-icere, eqvds for *eqv^ns,

225. i. dlducOy dUabor, dimiUo, etc., with loss

of s (cp. dlr-imo = ^dis-emo " take
asunder "), idem, »ido.

226. u, de-gu-no (^-g%bS'no) with the weak

form of the root as in gus4are ; pruna

and of Latin «. „ , . i » r *

" live-coal for ^prus-na.

^ Stolz, Lot, (7r.^ p. 302, but according to Brngmann, Orundr.
1.3 § 483, 7, csTta stands for *certmd, connected with Skt kart- '* cut
in pieces."

§ 228 VOWEL SHORTENING, SYNCOPE 201

4. Shortening of vowels.

227. In both Greek and Latin a long vowel
before j, % a liquid or a nasal followed by a
breathed consonant is shortened. otKOi^:, Lat. vlcls
for Indo-G. *ymkOis (§ 181, 3), Zev?, Lat. dies, etc.
(§ 181, 4-6); \v0€'vr' from XvOtj- in stem of
participle of Gk. Ist aorist passive, Lat. amUnt-,
docint-, etc ; ace. pi. of -a stems originally rifiav^
(§ 218), Lat. *eqiL&n8, whence later r^/xa?, eqiuis.
In Greek, <f)€pa}VTai of the subjunctive is an
exception to this rule, no doubt through the
influence of the other forms which are long.

Both languages tend to shorten a long vowel
before a following vowel which is of diflFerent
quality.^ ?a)9 "morning," Ionic ^(»9 (§ 181, 4)
for *ai;<ra)9. v€'&v (gen. pi. of vav^) for *v7)F'<ov,
Lat. ple-o, fu'i, etc In Ionic and Attic Greek,
when a long vowel was followed by a short vowel,
a curious metathesis of quantity took place:
Paa-iketo^ for Homeric fiaat\rjo(;, etc. The stress
accent of Latin led to many other shortenings, as
in final -d of verbs, etc. (cp. § 274). *

5. Loss of a syllable.

228. (L) Syncope, which is the loss of a vowel
between two consonants, does not occur syncope appears
in Greek, the nature of the Greek oniyinikon,
accent (§ 266) not affecting the length of the

^ Vowels of the same quality contract.

202 LOSS OF SYLLABLES § 228 —

syllables in the same manner as the stress accent
of Latin did. A stress accent tends always to
weaken those syllables of the word on which it
does not fall; consequently there are many
examples of the loss of a syllable in Latin. The
most common are purgo beside pur-i-go, pergo for
^per-rego, cp. per-rexi, surgo for ^suh-rego^ cp. sur-
rexi, surpui for surripui, reppvli, rettvli, etc., for re-
peptUi, re-tetvliy etc., ccUdtts, vendere beside venum-
dare, quindecim, vir for ^viros, ager, and many
others.^

(ii.) A similar loss of a syllable is produced in
Lofis of one of ^^^ languages by another cause. When
Lwel.^'^'Hapfi *iwo Syllables follow one' another which
^ogy- have exactly the same consonants, there

is a tendency in most languages to drop one of
them, e.g. in English idolatry though the Greek is
eiSooikoXarpeia. Hence we find in Greek afi(f>op€v<:
for dfi(f>i(f>op€v^ (cp. apLJ>LKinr€KKov\ rjp^ehifivov for
'^fii-fiiStfivov, K€\aiv€^i]^ for KcKaivo-ve^i]^] in
Latin stipendium for ^stipi-pendio-m, voluntarius
for *voluntat'ariu$, se-modius for semi-modius,

etc.2

•

^ For a long list, not, however, all of the same nature, see
Schweizer-Sidler, Or. d. lot. Sjrrache, §§ 45 if.

^ Pokrowsky {K.Z. 35, p. 227) shows that nutriXj which was
quoted as an example in the first edition {*ntUri-trix)f is much
older than niUrUor and forms derivatives as early as Plautus.
His explanation of the tjrpe voluntariics (ib. p. 250) as derived
from substantives *voluntaf etc., like senecta is not verj con-
vincing, though supported by Prellwitz' derivation of the suffix
'driua (Oscan dsio-) from the loc. pi. of stems in -a {BB, xxiv.
p. 94).

— § 233 PROTHESIS IN GREEK 203

6. Prothesia

229. This is a purely Greek peculiarity; no
certain instances are known in Latin, prothesia occurs
Prothesis is the appearance of a vowel """^^^ "' ^"®^'
in front of the sound which we know, from com-
parison with other languages, to have ^do„iyi^fo^
been originally the initial sound of the ^®^*" •'°^^''-
word. The consonants generally preceded by such
vowels are /a, X, /n, f ; the vowels which precede
these consonants are a, 6, and 0. Some groups of
consonants, /rr-, p^^-, and <r^-, are preceded by t.

230. a. Prothesis of a: arpavGto\ a-\€i<lxo
(cp. XtTra) ; a-fioKo^, d-fi/SXv^ (cp. fiaXaKO^, pKa^
with ^ = m/-), a-fMeifi'd) (Lat. mig'Td-re), a-fiekrf-ta
(cp. Lat. muLg-e-o) ; aepaa (dialectic form of Fepar)),

231. b, Prothesis of e: i-pe^-to, i-pevy-o-fuii
(cp. Lat rm-ta-re), i-pvOpo-^ (Lat. rvher), i-Xa^v^
(Lat. livis), i'\ev0€pO'<; (Lat. ZfJer); no certain
example of prothetic € before fi- ; e-ipv-^ ; evkrfpa
(Homeric = *i'F\rfpa, Lat. lora "reins "); e-ehva (root
FeS'), i-eUoa-i (Doric FUari), i-eparf " dew."

232. c, Prothesis of 0: o-pvaam (root pvtc-)',
o-\67-o-9, O'Tua-Odvci) (cp. \^to9, Xao-o-o?) ; O'fJLVxea) ;
no example of prothetic o before F, unless olyvvfii
(oFiy-) and perhaps the name of the Cretan town

233. d. Prothesis of i: l-x^v^ (original form
uncertain; cp. e-^^e? alongside of x^^Oj i'^^^ri^
(alongside o^KrcSirf "weasel-skin helmet" in Homer);
Ua0i"her

204 CAUSES OF PROTHESIS % 234

234. The causes of prothesis are by no means

Possible causes Certain, but it seems probable that

of prothesis; j^^^^ Ht^iM^ oue cause has been at work.

p representing original r is never found at the

beginning of a word in Greek : where p begins a

difficulty of pro- word it represents original «r- or y/r- as

nundauon; jj^ ^^^^^ (g gQS) and ^t'?a. Original

initial r is always preceded in Greek by one or
other of these prothetic vowels. This seems to
indicate a difficulty which the Greeks felt in
pronouncing r ; cp. French esprit for Latin spiritus
(§ 249 n.). But why should the vowel vary?
Why should we not have uniformly a, or €, or o
instead of all three ? G. Meyer suggests that the
nature of this vowel was generally determined by
the character of the vowel in the next syllable, thus
introducing a principle somewhat of the same sort
as the law of vowel harmony in the Turanian
languages (§ 34), a principle which has been more
prominently brought forward recently.^ But we
must search for further causes, for we can hardly
suppose that the Greek found a difficulty in pro-
nasais and li- nouuciug X and /LI as well as p and f.
Ss^'sSifaT+cSS! It 18 noticeable that p, X and /x are
sonant; souuds which appear as both sonants

and consonants; consequently it is possible that
after a preceding consonant they were pronounced
as rr-, 11-, mm- respectively, whence would come ap-,
wrongdivisionof «^-> ^ud afjL-. There are other possi-
words. bilities — the wrong division of words
(§ 238), the existence of prefixed particles (§ 239)

1 By Johannes Schmidt, K,Z, 82, pp. 321 ff.

— § 236 SENTENCE AND WORD 205

as in a-X^ft) which has been explained as *w-
and disyllabic roots.

7. The phonetics of the sentence.

235. In the making of a sentence the individual
words pronounced during a breath are Difference be-
not kept carefully separate, as they ^^^ wmuS
appear in writing, but are run into one *p««*^^-
another, the final consonant of the preceding word
being assimilated to the first of the following
word, and vowels contracting or disappearing,
precisely as in the case of the individual word.
Hence in Sanskrit, the language of the most acute
grammarians the world has ever seen, we sometimes
find a series of words run into one whole which
ends only with the end of the sentence Bxampiesofthis
or with some other natural break. The «^*ff«rence,
form in which we write the words of our own
language or of Latin and Greek is that which the
words would have when no other sound followed.
Thus we write rov \o7ox/, but what the Greek said,
and what he not imfrequently wrote, was T0XX070X/ :
the variations in Latin liaud, haut, hau point to
assimilations of the same nature, and, though in
English we write at all, we actually combine the
sounds of these two words exactly as we do in a tall
man.

236. Among the consequences we may deduce
from these facts are the following : (a) words are

^ By £. R. Wharton (Sonu Greek Etymologies, p. 4).

206 EFFECTS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE % 236 —

likely to be wrongly divided, thus giving rise to
conaeouences new forms ; (6) final and initial conso-
wo^8^ iS^^'^thi nants willbe assimilated and one or other
sentence. ,^^^ disappear, thus again giving rise

to new forms ; (c) final vowels may either disappear
or become consonantal before the initial vowel of a
following word, and, if the consonantal form of the
vowel affects the previous consonant, may give rise
to new forms ; (rf) if the forms originated in these
three ways continue to subsist side by side, they
may be specialised in different usages, and may no
longer be felt as at all connected, or one dialect
may keep one form and another dialect its variant.

237. (a) This generally arises from the similar-
ity of the case ending of the article or some such
word to the initial sound of the word which is
affected. Thus in Greek rA^-o-Teya? is divided rh^
wonjs wrongly ^€709 and heuce a byform arises r^o^,

divided, t^t;, and the verb T€7a) by the side of
the older arirfo^y areyr), areyo)} So also roi^
/jLiKpov^, T0U9 *fi€pSa\€ov<:, ctc., Icad to roif^ a-fiiKpov<:,
T0V9 <T}i€phaKkov^, and ultimately to a complete set
of forms with initial 5, which had been lost earlier
by a general Greek law (§ 202). The pronoun
o helva " a certain one " is supposed to be a wrong
division of SSe + another pronominal element.^ If
any further change takes place in the form of an
initial combination of consonants, the byform may

^ This interchange goes baok to Indo-G. times, the Germanic
languages (Eng. thatch) showing a form without 5-, for initial si-
would remain unchanged (§ 103, i. ).

^ Baunack, Studien, L 46 ; Solmsen, K.Z, 31, pp. 475 ff. But
compare Persson, LF, ii. pp. 228 ff.

— §240 UPON INDIVIDUAL WORDS 207

be widely separated from its parent. If we could
be certain of the identification, a good example
of such diflference would be found in ^4709 = *8rlgos,
whence in Latin both frlgus (§ 203) and rigor}

238. This wrong division of words is probably
one of the origins of prothesis. Thus
ofjbOfyyvvfjLi by tne side 01 /jbopyvvfii
probably arises from a wrong division of airo-
fi6f)yvvfiL, and the same may be true of o-pvcccj and
6'\ia0dv<o,

239. The words w-^eXew, ft)-/>u77y,and some others
seem to owe their initial vowel to a i^«xe'„, and
somewhat different cause. In the pre- o*«^^-
historic period of Greek there seems to have been a
preposition *&> ( = Skfc. a) meaning " round about."
This still survives in w/ceai/o?, originally a participle
from the same root as Kel'iuu and indicating the
river "lying roimd" the world.^ The stem of
o^eXAco, etc., is apparently the same as that in Skt.
phal-a-m " fruit, gain." If *d) could be used with
the same meaning of greatness as irepl in TrepUXvTo^;,
etc., it is not hard to arrive at the meaning of
ci>(f>€\ici)? It may be conjectured that in ipi^cj as
compared with its substantives 6po^o^, opo(f>i], the
verb changed its initial 0 to e parallel to the regular
change of its root voweL

240. The number of such wrongly diyided words
in English is considerable; as examples may be

' So Pedersen, I.F. ii. p. 325 n.

» See v. Fierlinger, K.Z. 27, pp. 477 ff.

• Moulton, A.J. P. viii. p. 209. It ia, however, difficult to
connect 60eXo¥ and dipeCXa with ib^Xiuf, if this derivation is right,
owing to the form Fo<p\rjK6ffi found in an inscription from Mantinea.

208 ASSIMILATION IN THE SENTENCE % 240

cited apron akin to napery originating in the
Wrongly diTided WTong division an apron instead of
wortUiuKngiish. ^ .^^p^on, an orange for a norange,
a nickname for an eke name, the n in the last case
being added to the original word, whereas in the
first two cases the n which originally b^an the
word has been lost.^

241. (b) The loss of final consonants is probably

mostly due to assimilation. To this may be attri>

buted the total loss of final stops in Greek. Double

Amimiiation consouauts arising by assimilation at

in the sentence, ^j^^ ^^^ ^f ^ ^^^ ^^^^ rcduCCd at the

end of the clause or sentence to a simple sound ;
hence x/eo-n;?, novi-tas with final -9, -s for -or, -ss by
assimilation from -t9,-^s, the originalstem
being *neij>o(eytdt-. The v i<f>e\Kv<rTuc6vy
whether at the end of a verb form as e^epc-i;, or of
a noun form like iTnroiai-v, was not originally
merely an arbitrary means of avoiding hiatus, but
was extended from cases where it had originally a
meaning and syntactical value to other cases where
it had not. Parallel to this is the confusion of of
and on in Shakspearian English^ and in modem
dialects. The unaccented form of both prepositions
became simply a neutral vowel soimd written 0' (cp.

^ In the Keltic languages this has resulted rather in the change
of the initial consonant of the second than of the final consonant
of the first word. The speakers of the old Gaulish language, when
they adopted Latin as their speech, kept the old manner of pro-
nunciation, a pronunciation still traceable in the curious ** sentence
phonetics" of French ; cp. i/ a with a-t-ilf and the pronunciation
of avez-voua ? with that of the same words in vous avez.

^ Abbott, Shakspearian Grammar , § 182.

\f i^tXKvtrrut6v. ^ .^ *j,

§ 243 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS 209

a-bed where a is the unaccented form of the older
an=^on, and a, an the articles, really unaccented
forms of ane, one). Hence on came to be used for of
and vice versa. In the modern Northumberland
dialect on has, in consequence, developed largely at
the expense of o/.

242. The frequent loss of final s after a short
syllable in early and popular Latin was Lossofflnai*
owing to a weak pronunciation of the s *° ^**°*
and partly, perhaps, also to assimilation. But to the
Eoman writers it was merely a metrical device and
the elision occurs before all consonants with equal
impartiality.^

243. (c) The contraction of a final vowel with
the initial vowel of the following word

has already been discussed. The loss of
a final vowel before a succeeding initial vowel
leads in Greek to various dialectic forms of the
prepositions av, air, xar, etc., which were then used
before consonants and sometimes assimilated, as
is the case with kut before ir to tt — kutt irehiov

^ In the existing remains of Latin poetry, exclusive of the
dramatists, there are some 445 certain instances of the loss of final
Sf and about 200 more which for various reasons are doubtful.
Lucilius employs this metrical device most frequently, the pro-
portion in his remains being about one occurrence in every 5 '2
verses, in Ennius one in 5*5, in Lucretius, excluding |7o^i', which
may have been pUe^ and conjectural emendations, about one in
137. The instances before each initial consonant are roughly in
proportion to the frequency of the consonant as an initial letter ;
thus p is the most frequent initial letter with 65, s the next with
53 occurrences. Maurenbrecher's results (Fortchungen zur IcU,
SpraehgeschichU u. Metrikj i. Leipzig, 1899) for the comic poets give
8 as the most frequent initial letter.

P

210 LOSS OF FINAL SOUNDS § 243 —

(Homer), before /8 to )S — KafifiaKe (Homer), and
so on.*

244. In Latin et represents the same original as
Latin d, ac, ^*'"*' *^^^ ^y the regular change of final

"^^- ' i Latin to e (§165) became ^ete and
the final e was dropped before a following vowel as
in animal, calcar, etc., which are neuter i-stems. So
also oc is merely a byform of at-qtce (itself only
ad + que "and besides"), the e-sound being lost by
a kind of syncope (§ 228, i.) before a following con-
sonant and t being assimilated to c {qu) exactly as
in siccus from ^sit-co-s,^ In the popular pronuncia-
tion which we find in Plautus this dropping of final
e was carried much further, as we learn from the
scansion, than the representation of the language in
writing shows.

245. The peculiar scansion of Homer is also in a
large measure due to the change of the

Scansion of diph
thonga before
▼owelain Homer.

thonga before sccoud part of a diphthong into a con-

sonant beginning the next syllable, the
sonant part of the diphthong being then treated as
short; in other words, -ot o- (see § 83) is now
scanned as -a ta-. Hence, in the line alkv apiaireveiv
Kal inreipo^ov cfifievat aXKoop, the latter part is to
be scanned xa ixnreipo'^fpv cfifieva tdXKtav, In cases
of erases like /cdvi, tcara the grammars lay down the
rule that a is to be written only when i is part of
the second element in the combination. This rule
finds an explanation in this principle; in fcdiri i
disappears as it does in ttow for ttoiA and arod

» G. Meyer, Gr. Gr? § 309.

' Skutsch, For$chungen z, laL Oramm, p. 62.

— § 248 ORIGIN OF DOUBLE FORMS 211

for older a-rocd, while in Kara the t of elra still
survives.

246. (d) A good example of the double forms
produced when a final vowel becomes

. 1 . . / mi • • irpoTi and irpof .

consonantal is seen m irpo^. This is
the form which Trpori takes before a following
voweL Thus the primitive Greek forms would
have been ^'rrport-BiScDTty but *irpori€S<oK€, whence
*7rpoaa'€S<oKe. This when isolated was written
irpo^ and remained the only form in Attic Greek,
although 'rrpori survived and 7r/)09 disappeared in
other dialects.

247. The 9 in forms like ef (= i/c-^), et? (= *eV-9),
y(opL'<i, etc., is of uncertain origin. As

irapo^ {gQH.), irapa (instr.;, irept, (loa),
irapai (dat.), seem to belong to one noun paradigm,
it is possible that -9 in 6/V-9 is the weak form of the
genitive sufiix. etV and iv have been specialised in
Attic in different senses. In some dialects, how-
ever, iv is the only form, governing alike dative
and accusative just as Lat. in governs the ablative
and accusative.

248. The forms once ending in -j;? which show
compensatory lengthening of the vowel survival of
are only one of two sets of forms which ^°'^^^® '°™*-
existed as the effect of the following word upon the
previous one. At the end of the sentence or before
a following vowel the forms with long vowel were
developed — rtpA^, eU (^ev-s:), Oeov^i : before a
following consonant the vowel showed no lengthen-
ing although the -v was dropped as before — rt/ia?,
€9, ^€09. So too 86cr-7roT^9 " housc lord " for *S€/i9-

212 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ACCENT § 248 —

iroTTji;, where *Se/A9 is a genitive of an old stem
from the same root as 5o/a-o-9 and Sifi-a. This
accounts for the variants et9 and 69> and for the
short forms of the accusative plural which are
sometimes found in poetry ; cp. Hesiod, Works and
Days, 675, KaX j^eifi&p* iircoPTa, Horoto re Seipa^
arfra^ : Shield, 30 2, rol S* ioKinroha^ Xarfo^ ^pew.
These short forms, however, have generally been
overpowered by those which show the compensatory
lengthening.

XIV. Accent

249. It has already been pointed out that in
Pitch and ^^^ Original Indo-Grermanic language
stress accent fchcre wcrc two kiuds of Accent — pitch
accent and stress accent (^ 92-3). It was also ob-
served that the eflFects produced by these accents were
of different kinds. The effect of pitch accent would
be to influence the nature of a sound, a high-pitched
sound naturally going with the high pitch accent
and conversely. The main effect of stress accent is
that it emphasises one syllable at the expense of
its neighbours; the syllables before and after are
likely either to lose their separate existence alto-
gether or to have their vowel reduced to a neutral
sound. This happened extensively in Latin, and
in the development of the Romance languages from
Latin. In Latin compounds, in instances where
there was no coimteracting cause, the a, e, or 0
sound of the simple word was reduced to the neutral
i or u sound (§ 272) ; compare desilio, instdto with

— § 261 AND THEIR EFFECTS ON WORDS 213

salio ; adimo, jprotinus with emo and tenus; Uico
(=*in doco\ sedvlus (formed from se dole " without
guile ") with locvs and dolus. In the late Latin,
from which the Eomance languages sprang, the
stress accent was stronger apparently than it had
been at an earlier period ; hence, in cases where no
other law crossed its effect, the loss of unaccented
syllables preceding or following the syllable which
had the main stress. Thus the Italian Rimini,
storia are the representatives of the Latin Ariminum,
historiam; the French Grilles, fr^re, aimdble, esprit^
of the Latin EgiliiLS (a by-form of Egidius, Cic. De
Orat. ii 68), fratrem (§ 93), amabilem, spiriium,

250. It is necessary to discuss (1) the remains
of the original Indo- Germanic accent

,., .11 n 1. <ii. i» Two systems of

which are still found m the history ot accentuation to

be discussed

the individual languages, and (2) the
changes in the original system of accentuation
which took place in the separate history of Greek
and Latin.

1. The Indo-Grermanic Accent. Ablaut.

251. The most important relic of the original
accentuation, and the only one which

., _ . ^1 1 Vowel gradation.

requires consideration here, is the vowel
gradation or ablaut, which the majority of philo-
logists still attribute to the influence of pitch
accent.^ It is contended that there was a change

' The initial e is prothetic, originating in the difficulty which
the speakers of late Latin found in pronouncing initial s- followed
by another consonant ; hence late Latin iapirUtbs (cp. § 234).

s See § 92.

214 PITCH ACCENT AND ABLAUT § 251

of vowel according to the position of the highest
Interchange of pitch, foi example t interchanges with
eando, o, 6 as a higher pitched vowel appear-
ing in the syllable with the chief accent, o in the
syllable which had not the chief accent. Thus we
have rightly ^e/ooi, but ^opa. Analogy of all
affected by tiuds has, howcvcr, obliterated a large
Analogy. ^^^ ^f ^j^^ systcm, if this theory be
correct. Thus 761/09 is right but 701/09 is wrong,
and so also is 0809 which ought to be *oS€9. This
confusion no doubt can be explained as the result
of a change of position in the accent of the oblique
cases and a consequent change of vowel, this new
vowel being at a later period introduced into the
nominative from the oblique cases, or, on the other
hand, being expelled from its rightful position by
the vowel of the nominative.

252. The phenomena of ablaut may be con-
veniently classified according to the

Vowel aeries, , - . 1 rwn

vowels concerned m each case. Thus
it is found that in various forms there is an inter-
change of « and 0, of I and 5, etc., both when they
occur between consonants and also when they occur
finally or form diphthongs with i, u, or with nasals
or liquids, tm or el being exactly parallel to ei or
tu (§ 83). When, however, we examine the earliest
relics of the Indo-Germanic languages we find that
in some of them, such as Latin, the system of vowel

gradation has been nearly obliterated,
?picuo?B in all whilc in othcrs, such as Greek, it is to

a large extent preserved. Even in
Greek, however, only one series is found to any

§ 253 TYPICAL FORM OF ROOTS 215

very large extent, viz. that which is named from its
vowels the e\o series. Of this series there are
very many examples in Greek, and even in Latin a
few have been preserved.

253. The «-grade of such roots is generally
taken in recent books as the typical Typical fonn
form; older books followed the fashion o'«>ot»-
of the Indian grammarians and gave the forms in
their weak grade in most cases. Thus the root of
T/o€7r-fli, TpoTT'O'^, would now be given as rpeir-,
representing exactly an original *trep' ; the root of
'rreiO'tD, ire-TrotO-a, i-inO-ov as TreiO-, not as ircO-,
representing an original *bheidh- (cp. § 102), not
*bhidh-. The form in 0 is generally called the
ablaut or variant^ form, while the forms in i, u, I, r,
m, n, or without a sonant at all, are described as the
weak grade. But it is really inaccurate to say that
TTocB- and ttopO- (in 'rr€''rrop0''a) are the deflected
forms respectively of TretO- and irevO-, for such a
statement implies that TretO- and 'rrevO- were in
existence before ttoiO- and ttopO-, and of this there
is no proof. Accent changes accompany vowel
changes from the earliest period that we gan
reach in the history of Indo- Germanic sounds;
as already mentioned the principal pitch accent
on a syllable was accompanied, it seems, by an
6-vowel ; the absence of such accent by an o-vowel.
On the other hand, the absence of the principal

^ I prefer this to the tenn deflected used to translate fl^i in
the English translation by Mr. Elliott of Victor Henry's excellent
Pr6eis de la Orammaire eomparie du Orec et du Latin, because I
wish to avoid suggesting that the 0 forms are in any way less
original than the e forms.

216 Srii£SS ACCENT AND ABLAUT § 263 —

stress accent was marked by the appearance of the
_ syllable in its lowest pronounceable form

Weak forms the •' _ ., .« . .1,1 1

result of stress triQ-, irnO-, OT, if it was possible, by the
total absence of the sonant; cp. ira-rip-a^
ira-Tpi-at ( = *p9'trsi),^ ira-rp-o^. Assuming that
e and 0 do vary according to the position of the
pitch accent, it would be best to name e the high
grade, 0 the low grade, and to call the reduced forms
the weaJc grade. It seems probable that the short
vowels when reduced disappeared altogether, or,
according to Streitberg's theory (§265 n.), length-
ened the previous syllable if accented, while long
vowels were reduced to the neutral vowel in the
weak grade and disappeared in compounds.^

254. The levelling which has taken place in

Latin in the noun forms has been

vowel gndas in already mentioned (§ 48). Instead of

^dd'tdr, *da'tr-^8 (later -is), ^da-tir-i we

find datOr, dataris, datOre, the strong form being

carried through all the cases ; on the other hand,

^ The stress accent here, whatever its original position, conld
not have been on the 4f- syllable, for an accented sonant liquid
or nasal, as was pointed out in § 167, n. 2 (p. 148), is a contra-
diction in terms.

' So Bartholomae {LF, vii. p. 70), who accounts for the forms found
(mostly in Sanskrit) without 9 in long- vowel series (Qk. ri-Bt-tuw^
but Skt da-dh-rndsi; ri-B^-rt, but Skt. dhaUd; So-rS-t, but Skt.
devd't-ta-8**0rod-g}Yen,** with -t- only to represent the root syllable)
by formulating the rule that "in the second or penultimate
syllable of a word 9 was lost in the original language if its accent
was altered by its forming part of a compound, or in the case of a
verb by its becoming enclitic " (§ 267). Thus da-dh-rnds is the form
arising in compounds or through enclisis, while Greek preserves
the simple form.

§ 267 LEVELLING OF FORMS BY ANALOGY 217

fattr has weak forms in every case except the nomi-
native singular, caro, carnis represent the normal
declension, but we have no carinem (= *cdronem), no
carine ( = *car4ni) ; these have been replaced by
carnem and carne. So even in Greek,
although KV'OiP, kv-v-6^ is regular, there
is no *Kvova for the accusative singular and no
*Kvaai for the dative (locative) plural. The weakest
forms {Kvva, kvo-l) have taken their places.

255. This analogical levelling appears to some ex-
tent in all languages ; there is a further

reason in Latin for the disappearance of leveiung in
of the original ablaut, viz. the tendency
to change its diphthongs to simple sounds and to
reduce to the neutral vowel all vowels unaccented
under its later system of accentuation (§ 274).

256. In the short vowel series a number of
forms are found with a long vowel. The

relation of these forms to the others is in the^^Ihort
not in all respects clear, and indeed,
notwithstanding the work of the last twenty years
on this whole problem, much still remains to be done,
and scarcely a single statement made on the subject
can be said to have met with universal acceptance.

257. In the following series it is to be observed
that in most cases no single language

o 00 Vowel Reries are

has retained representatives of all the rarely complete

I J ,. 1 in any language.

vowel grades ; sometimes one language
shows forms which have been lost in others, but in
many instances a complete set of forms cannot be
obtained even from the whole of the Indo-Germanic

218

INDO-GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES % 268

2 5 8. A. The c : o series.

This, by far the most important series, is found
Formgofthe ^^^ merely in the simple form e : o with
«:o series, ^j^^ corresponding weak grade, but also
in cases where the vowel is combined with i, u,
nasals, and liquids. For the relation of long forms
like ira-n^p, <f>pi]v, ev-ird-rtDp, ev-^ptov, homo, irov^,
pis, etc.,^ to the shorter forms ira-rip-a, ^pev-a,
€V'7rd'T0p'a, €v-<j>pov'aj hominem, iroS-a, ped-em, etc.,
see note after § 265. When the e : o vowel entirely
disappears in diphthongs of the weak grade, the re-
maining i, u, nasals, and liquids may be sonant or
consonant according as a consonant or a vowel
follows them. Hence the complete table of this
series (excluding the long forms) in the original
language must have been as follows ^ : —

Strong Grade

Weak Grade

(i.) 6 : 0

nil

(ii.) ^i :oi

i

(iil) iu : oil

u

(iv.) 6m : om

m

(v.) 6n : on

n

(vi.) 4t : or

r

(vu.) el : ol

1

^ From these must be distinguished the long vowels which arise
in compounds at the junction of the composing elements as in
\oxay6t, Lat. ambages, and which Wackemagel has shown to have
nothing to do with ablaut.

'^ The modem English representatives of these seven series are :

(i.) give

gave

given (with vowel of present)

(ii.) drive

drave

driven

(iii.) freeze

: froze

frore (O.E. ptcp. ge-froren)

(iv.) swim

: swam

swum

(V.) drink

: drank

drunken

(vi.) bear

: bare

bom

(vii.) steal

: stole (foi

•stale)

stolen

§ 259 FORMS OF THE E : O SERIES

219

In the individual languages these sounds fol-
lowed the course of development which has been
already explained in each case.

strong Grade

Weak Grade

259. (i.)e:0

nil

Tib-a : T6d-a

iTl'Pd-a

ped-e : tri-pud-ium

H^

li:w { = *si-zd-d, §143)

sed-e-o : sol-ium (l=d,

Vsido

\md\ia ( = *ni-zd-os)

§134)

sit : set

nest

(Goth, satjan

like <t>opi(a)

(ii-) ejt : 01

i

xelO-b) : T^-TOid-a

( 4-ir4-xi0-fA€y

\xia-T6t{ = *xie'T6-t, §192

O.L. feid-o : foed-us

fid-ea

FclS-o-fJuu : FoiSa

FlS-€lV

— : vid-i (§ 176)

vid-ere

O.E. — : wat (I wot)

wit-an

(iii.) en : ou

U

y€v-(a : —

—

— : —

gas-tare

O.E.ceosan : ceas

curon (1 pi. pft.)

(choose) : (chose)

x€6$-o-fjuu : —

T»}<r-Ttf ( = *TlJ^-TlS, §192)

O.E. beod-an : bead

bud-on (1 pi. pft.)

(iv.) em : om

m (m)

(y4fi'<a : y6fi-o-s
\y4fi-oi

nem-us

emo( = *ri7no, §161)

O.E. nim-an (§ 10) : nam

ge-num-en ( = *w72im-)

els ( = »«wi-s,§ 156): 6/4-6-5

U.Ta|( = *5m-)

\&fi-a { = *S7rim-)

sem-per : —

sim-plex

— : same

some

220

INDChGERMANIC VOWEL SERIES % 269

Strong Grade

Weak Grade

(v.) en on

n(n)

^pkv-tk : eiJ-^pw-a

<t>pa-ffl (Pindar)

i-yiv-ero : y4-yo¥-a

yl-yif-O-fJMi

yiv'Oi : y6y-o-s

ye-ya-iiev

gen-ua —
O.H.G. chind "child" : O.E.

gi-gn-o '

gen-jus (=^-jo-s)

O.E. cynn "kin"

[o^nnan

( = »mn.io-ma.-, §§26,83)

aM-fJM-TO't

Min-er-ya : me-min-i

fcom-tnen-tu-s
\men8 (§ 25)

O.E. — —

ge-mynd

(vi) er : or

r(r)

ra-Wp-a' : ippd-TOp-a

iTa-Tp-is
\ xa-rpd-ffi

pa-tr-is

O.E. fffi-der : [br6-dor»]

Gothic ffa-dr-s (gen.)

\fa-dru-m(-tr-')dat.pl.

<p4p-(a : <f>op-6't
4>op'fi6'i

8l-<t>p'0'i

(a vehicle to carry two)

fer-o : —

({0T'B( = *bhr-tl-8)

\for-te

O.E. ber-an : b8er(pft.)

bearm "bosom"

ge-boren

beam (bairn)

* The compounds itiaiignust benignuSf abiegnus, etc., are later
formations in which the vowel of the root *^«n- is suppressed by
the influence of the later stress accent (§ 272) ; cp. oUaginvs^ etc

' The Latin nominatives paitr, dator represent an older *pai£r,
*dat6r.

' The 0 in the second syllable has developed from a sonant r,
the original vowel of the final syllable disappearing phonetically
(Hirt, I.F. i. p. 212 ; Streitberg, Urgerm, Gframm. p. 250).

261

THE E : O AND A : O SERIES

221

Strong Grade
(vii.) el ol

" belt to hold some-
thing up "

: te-tul-i

O.E.

pel-lo ( = *p«/-nd) : pe-pal-i

Weak Grade

1(1)

TdX-a$ (=«fZ-)

tollo( = *^-n5)

>olian **thole"(§106, iv.)

iraX-T6-f

pul-BU-s (=VrW-», § 152)

260. B. The I : 0 series.

e : 6

9

Ti-$Ti'fu : Bw-fjM-i

Bc'TO'i { = *dh;9-td-a)

con-di-tu-s (§ 191, n. 2)

fe-ci

fa-ci-o

O.E. d«-d "deed" : d6m*'doom"

do "I do"

iS-Aia (§142,1) :d0-^.a;-ffa

i-T6'S

8e-tnen

sa-tu-8

O.E. 8«-d

261. C. The a : 0 sen

es.^

(i.) a : ?o

na

(ii.) ai : toi

i

(iii.) au : ?ou

u

(i.) dy-w : ? iy-fio-i

?Skt.j.man2"iiithepath"

ago

IceL aka [ok pft]

ekinn (ptcp.)

(it) aW-w

ie-ap6'S

aes-tas

> The low grade with 0 is not certain (cp. Hirt, AblatUy p. 161).
iy-fio-s " swathe " is cited as an example ; other authorities divide
6-y-fio-s, and make 0 prothetic. Ax-pot : 6K-pi-s is a plausible
example, but its relation to the long forms seen in Lat. Oc-er,
Gk. d)K-6'Sf is not clear. Since in all but the Aryan languages 9
as well as original & is represented by &, it is often difficult to
decide whether a given form contains 9 or a (cp. Pedersen, K,Z,
36, pp. 75 ff. ). Pft. forms like 6k come from the ^ : d series.

' Cp. Wackernagel, Altinditche Orammatiky i. p. 79.

222 INDO'GERMANIC VOWEL SERIES § 261 —

Strong Grade Weak Grade

O.E. ad (§ 174) idel (idle)

(iii. ) otfw ( = *aaus'6)
O.K sear "sere"

262. D. The a : 6 series.

a : 0

?-flTd-/w (Doric)

sta-men
O.K sto-l (stool)

^W'lrfi

ffrd-ffi-s ( = flT»-W-5, § 169)
i-m

L-O

stae-d

{sta-ti-i
8ta-ti-<

4>a-/jJp
fa-te-or

ip&'fii (Doric)
fa-ma ^
fa-bulaj

263. E. The 0 series ; F. The d series.
The forms of these series are rare and uncertain.
There is no variation found in the strong grade.

nil

o

6\f/-0'fJMl

lofro.^i

? p6e-po-t
fod-i-o .
Goth. bad.i"bed"
O.E. ^d

F. The 0 series.

This is the most doubtful of all. No probable
examples are to be found in the Germanic languages.

6

9

dl-8(a-fu

dd^yos

Sd'po-f

«0-T6-f«

do-nu-m

da-tu-s

««-Tt-f (§ 27)

do-Hjp

dos

da-tor

^ If 6fii belongs, as is probable, to the weak grade, it has
borrowed its 0 from the strong forms.

' do-T6'S like ^cr6j, Ms has taken the prevalent vowel of its
own verb. The regular form would be * Sards ( = *d9t6s).

— § 265 QUANTITY OF INDO-G, VOWELS 223

264. In the 0 and 0 series the only change is
in quantity. There is no change in quality as in
the e : 0 series. Owing to this lack of qualitative
interchange this 0 sound has been held to be
different from the d which interchanges with «, and
possibly with a (§ 114). Besides the grades given
in the six series cited, there are many oth^r inter-
interchanges of vowels which vary both yJweif and thdl
in quality and in quantity. Other **"***•
interchanges of long vowels of different qualities
may be explained by the existence of roots con-
taining long diphthongs. Thus from a root *dhe{'
"suck" come the forms Orj-a-a-ro, Lat. fi-li-u-s (§162),
Skt. dhl'td'8 " sucked." This last form at least may
be explained as containing the weak grade of the
root *dA9J-, n passing into I, Analogy also has
affected the different series in all languages so that^
all sorts of confusion arise,^ just as in the stem
gradation of substantives (§§ 48 fif.).

265. Eecent research has shown that in the
original language there must have been vowels of
three different lengths, viz. short, long, and extra-
long. The quantity of these may be distinguished
as one mora v^, two morae ^ ^, and three morae
sj sjsj respectively.^ The examination of the
problem of "lengthened grades" has helped to
clear up the relations of these three kinds of vowels.
There is considerable evidence to show that the
extra-long vowels arose from ordinary long vowels
when a succeeding mora was lost, e.g, when a

^ Cp. Brugmann, Qrundr. i.^ pp. 608 ff.
» Bartholomae, BB, xviL pp. 106 ff.

224 THEORY OF LENGTHENED GRADES §266

disyllabic word of the type ^ ^ became monosyl-
labic (see (2) below), or when vowels originally in
separate syllables contracted into one syllable, or
again when a long diphthong with acute accent lost
its second element (4). Such extra-long vowels
carried the circumflex accent. The acute and cir-
cumflex accents (§97) have been traced by their
influence not only in Greek but also in Sanskrit,
Lithuanian, and the Germanic group of languages.

Note. — The ** lengthened grades," the long vowels of ra-r^p, of
Lat. p&, etc. , have been placed in a new light by recent investiga-
tion. To this investigation a number of scholars have contributed
important elements, which have been co-ordinated and completed
in an important article by Streitberg {l.F, iii. pp. 805-416). The
following summary is taken from this article.

(1) An accented short vowel in an open syllable is lengthened
if a following syllable is lost.

Compare 0(6/> and 0op6s, trapa-pXiir// and i:arci)-^Xe^,
and (retaining the accent of their nominatives) €itp6oira
and Kvytava. Hence Doric rc^t, Lat. pia represent
*7r68oSf *p&ios, and similarly with other monosyllabic
root nouns : Lat. vdx^ rex, ISx, etc. Thus Indo-G. *gojfs
(/3oCs) = ^gS^os ; Indo-G. *diii^s = Vj^jftw. But in com-
pounds, where the accent went on to the first element
(vcd-ft;^, df-TTuf, Lat. aemi-fer, compared with ivy6s,
iyyiVf -xn^of and Lat. f^ima), the vowel remains un-
changed. So the long suffixes -«i-, -on-, -men-f -mon-,
-er-, -5r-, -ter, -tor have parallels with -o- ; -eno-^ -ono-y
•meno-f -numo-, -er(h, -tero-y though the last two differ
in meaning from the long forms. Similarly -ni' has a
by-form in -nto-, etc. The -»-forms, alone in the
noun, Streitberg thinks have no form with vowel
ending beside them. The Homeric y^vdi, however, by
the side of yhoi (cp. Lat. generdre) seems to vouch
for such original forms. No Indo-G. accusatives are
lengthened except *(fdm and d\0ly because these are the
only accusatives which became monosyllables; T6da,
pedem, etc., remain disyllabic.

— § 266 ACCENT IN GREEK AND LATIN 225

(2) An accented long vowel changes its accent from acute to
circumflex if a following syllable is lost Bartholomae's extra-long
vowels are such circumflexed forms. In other ^ords, while a
short is one beat or mora^ an ordinary long is two, a circumflexed
long three.

Compare 7Xav^ with adj. 7Xai;ic6$, Homeric /^o^yes
with /JtJ7I'u/u. Indo-G. *nati5 (1^00$) = *7id3^5.

(3) The loss of }, j^, w, n, r, I after long vowels and before
stop - consonants takes place only when the syllable bears the
principal accent of the word. The accent by this loss is changed
into the circumflex (cp. § 181).

(4) Unaccented vowels are lost both before and after the
principal accent of the word, j, jf, w, n are lost not merely after
original long vowels but also after those which have been length-
ened, except when they stand before 5.^

2. Accent of Greek and Latin in the historical period.

266. The accent of Greek and Latin in the
historical period was very diflferent Difference in
from the original Indo-Germanic accent, G^^acS'nt2Sd
and the two languages also differ very Lat»° accent,
much in this respect from one another. In Greek

^ It is impossible here to enter further on the many vexed
questions which still remain unsolved in connexion with the
problems of ablaut For further details see the chapters in
Brugmann's GrundrisSy \? on "Vocal ablaut" and "Betonung" ;
Streitberg, Urgerm. Orammatik, §§ 133 ff. ; Hirt's treatise entitled
Der miogermanische Akzent; articles by the same writer in I.F»
vii., ix. ; and finally his treatise entitled Der indogermanisehe Ablaut
(Strassburg, 1900), in which a very ingenious and plausible attempt
is made to account historically for the diflerent forms of vowel
gradation. As the investigation deals with a state of things which
had disappeared before the separation of the Indo-6. languages,
many of the propositions laid down on the subject can be treated
only as working hypotheses, the value of which must be ascertained
through further investigation.

Q

226 SPECIAL GREEK ACCENT § 266

the accent marks indicate pitch; on the other
hand, the main accent in Latin was a stress accent,
less strong perhaps in the later period of the
language than it had been in the earlier, and
perhaps at no time so emphatic as the stress accent
in English. The accounts of the Latin

Latin graiU'

martanfl account acccut which wc rcccive from eram-

nntrustworthy. . . i i- i

marians are of comparatively little
value, because it is evident that they applied to
the stress accent of Latin, the terminology of Greek
grammarians dealing with the pitch accent of their
own language. Thus, not recognising the differ-
ence between the two languages in this respect,
they attributed to Latin many phenomena which
it almost certainly never possessed.

267. The changes in the Greek accent seem to
have been brought about by the de-

Caaae which pro* /» i 1 • 1

duced the special velopiuent of a sccoudary accent which,
in words whose last syllable was long,
never receded farther from the end of the word
than the penultimate, and in no case farther than the
third syllable. Words like ttoXcq)? are no exception
to this rule, for in such words -ew? represents an
older -i;o9, and the metathesis of quantity is later
than the development of this " trisyllabic law," as it
is called. If this new accent chanced to agree in
Changes in the positiou with the old acccut inherited
ES^utSnderSe ^om the Indo-Gcrmauic period, no
new system. change took place. If the old accent,
which, being absolutely free, could stand on any
syllable, was nearer the end of the word than this
new secondary accent, the old accent might remain

— § 268 LAW OF THREE SYLLABLES 227

or the new accent might take its place. Thus
iraTTip preserves the original Indo-Grermanic accent ;
fii^TTfp, on the other hand, has taken the new accent
(§ 104). In words of more than three syllables,
and in trisyllabic words whose last syllable was
long, the accent could no longer be on the first
syllable. Thus the verb of the principal sentence,
which was originally enclitic when ^Accentuation of
following its subject or particles like t^«Qwekverb.
the augment and negatives,^ and the verb of the
subordinate sentence, which was accented on its
first syllable, were now both reduced to the same
form, and all genuine parts of the verb (the in-
finitive and participle are noun forms) were treated
in the same manner, and accented as far from the
end as the trisyllabic law would permit. Thus
^fyi/fvofjL€0a of the principal sentence, where the
accent was thrown forward on to the syllable
preceding the verb, whether that syllable was
the augment (§ 98) or a different word, was now
accented precisely in the same way as yiyvofji^Oa of
the subordinate sentence, the trisyllabic law forcing
the accent back to the o in both cases — ytr/vo/MeOa.
268. A further peculiarity of Greek accent is
the law by which nouns that form a Accentuation of
dactyl, or end in a dactyl, are accented ^^^^^^^ ^®"*»-
upon the penultimate : Orjpiov, j^wptov, Ata-j^vXo?,
Kap.irvko^t yeyevTffievo^, TeXear-^opo^;, Most of these
words were originally oxyton, an accentuation still
retained in some cases, especially in proper names,
*AKovfi€v6^, etc. ; cp. for non-dactylic forms Traj^uXo?,
1 Hirt, Idg. Akzent, pp. 304 ff.

228 ANALOG Y IN A CCENTUA TION % 268 —

Teiaafievo^;} This law, however, was not shared
by Lesbian Aeolic, which in all cases threw the
accent as far from the end of the word as the
trisyllabic law would permit.

269. In accent, as in other things, analogy
Analogy in affccts the Working of the general

accentuauon. prjnciplea Hcncc, although enclitics
are practically part of the word they follow, because
by definition they come under its accent, we find
not aXr/ea rivcov or aXryea tlvcov, but aXyed riviov
on the analogy of aXr/ed Tti/09. So also we find
€vvov for €vvov, the legitimate contraction of
€vv6ov, because the oblique cases follow the nomina-
tive in their accentuation. Conversely ^varov^ is
circumflexed in the nominative because j^vaiov, etc.,
regularly contract into ^xpvaov, etc. Since a large
number of perfect participles passive ended in a
dactyl, those which did not, as Tera/^ej/o?, XeXvfUvo^,
were analogically accented in the same manner/^

270. The nature of the Greek accents has
Nature of the already been briefly indicated (§ 97).
Greek accents, rpj^^ acutc was a rfsing, the circumflex

a rising-falling accent. The nature of the grave
accent is not easy to determine. As the Greek

^ Analogy also affects this law. tppoj^pioif has lost its diminu-
tive meaning (cp. Lat. casteUum) and is accented on the first
syllable.

' For further details see B. I. Wheeler's Der griechiache
NominalaccerU {1SS5) and Brugmann's Oncndr, i.^ §§ 1060 ff. Bloom-
field {Trans, of American Phil, Associaiion, 1897, p. 66) coi^ectures
that 'fUvoi may be the normal form of the accented suffix, and
that ^p6fieyoi may represent an older *<pipofjLwos, Skt bMramdiifaSf
which was soon assimilated in vowel to the pft. type iffrafUvos,
etc., with accented suffix.

— §271 NATURE OF THE CIRCUMFLEX 229

accent was musical, the relations of the acute and
the grave accents may be best illustrated by
comparing the acute accent to a higher note rising
from a monotone chant, the grave accent indicating
only that tfie pitch it marks is lower than that
which the syllable has when it ends the piece. In
the same way, the circumflex is of the nature of a
slur in music combining two notes of different pitch.
271. There is one further point. Why should
some long syllables be marked with an

1 •! t 1 • n n Interchanee of

acute, while others have a circumflex ? acut« and cir-
Why Zei59 but Zev? Why rt/^i; but ^"^^""^
Tifi7j<; ? Why oIkol, loc. sing. " at home," but olxoi
n. pi. " houses " ? The difference goes back to the
original Indo-Grermanic accent. The vocative was
originally accented only when it began the sentence.
This characteristic has been perpetuated in the
accentuation of the Sanskrit Vedic hymns. When
the vocative ceased to be enclitic, the accent passed
to the first syllable of polysyllabic words {irdrep
from irarrip), and in monosyllabic words from the
last to the first mora of a diphthong; thus Zev
with acute on the first element and grave on the
second, and this rise and fall on the same syllable
constitutes the Greek circumflex ZeO. In Tt/A^9
also the circumflex is Indo-Germanic The distinc-
tion between Tt/Lti; and rifiij^ corresponds to that
between the Lith. mergd} "maid" and its gen.

^ The final syllable of the nom. is shortened in Lithuanian just
as in Lat. equa^ etc. In Lithuanian the high pitched syllable is
marked by the accent, which, however, is written with a graye if
the syllable is short, with an acute if it is long.

230 SPECIAL LATIN ACCENT § 271

mergos. The cause of the interchange of acute and
circumflex is, if Streitberg's theory be correct, the
loss of a final syllable, the ending of the genitive
having been originally -so} In the difiference of
accentuation between oIkoi and oIkoi we have prob-
ably traces of the difference between original di-
moric and trimoric diphthongs. Final diphthongs
when dimoric allow of the circumflex on a foregoing
long syllable ; when trimoric they do not. If the
chief accent of oIko<; had been on the last syllable
instead of the first the loc. sing, would have been
circumflexed, the n. pi. oxyton (cp. ^lafffioi with the
pi. laOfioC). In other cases, however, the circum-
flex arises by contraction within Greek itself: rpeh
from *tTejres (§ 409), ^opelre from ^^ope-iere,

272. In the changes which Latin accent has
under&:one since abandoning the original

Two changes in -. , ° . . „ ^ ^ ° .

the special accent Indo-Grermanic system of accentuation,

of Latin : •'

two stages are observable, (a) The
first change, which seems to have been shared by
(a) stress ac- ^^^ othcr Italic dialects, was to a system
synlwe^Sf ®thi ill which the first syllable of the word
word; ^^^j.^ jjj ^^ ^g^g g^ stress accent. In

Latin this system had given way before the historical
(6) the later tri- ®^ ^ (^) ^^^ systcm which Continued
syiiabiciaw. ^^ prevail throughout the classical
period. According to it the stress accent fell upon
the penult if it was long, on the ante-penult if the
penult was short ; amdmus but amdbitur, legebam
but Ugerem, This accent sometimes came to stand
on the last syllable by the loss of a final vowel,

» Streitberg {LF. iii. pp. 349 ff.), following MoUer.

— § 274 TWO STAGES IN LA TIN 231

when words like illicef vidhne, etc., became Ulic,
vidin} etc.

273. Traces of the earlier accent, however, still
continued to survive in the vocalism of

. Traces in vocal-

Latin. Under the later system of ac- ism of the earlier

centuation ad-fdcio could never have

become officio; late compounds like cale-fticio,

indeed, keep the a-sound. de-hdbeo, prae-hdbeo, pro

fdctOf if such had been their accent, could not have

changed to debeo, praeheo, profecto. The forms of

these words must date from the time when the

older system of accentuation prevailed. That it

reached down to a comparatively recent period is

shown by the fact that foreign names in some cases

were accented according to it; Tdpavra, ^Atcpd-

yavra became Tarentum, Agrigentum, according to

this principle.^ .

274. To its strong stress accent Latin owes its
frequent and sometimes surprising changes of quan-
tity. These changes are best exemplified in the
scansion of the comic poets, who represent better
than the writers of the Augustan age the Latin
language as it was spoken. In Plautus we find a
constant tendency to change all iambic disyllables

* By the law of the Brevis breviang, whereby Latin tends to
change an iambic into a pyrrhic, viden was scanned as two shorts by
the comic poets, and eyen by Catullus (Ixi. 77).

^ Brugmann, Orundr, i. § 680. The Romans generally formed
the name of a Greek town from the Greek accusative. Hence from
MaXofeWa (ace.) "Apple- town " the Romans made Maleventum and,
in their popular etymology regarding it as a name of ill omon,
changed it to Bene-venium, Compare the similar change of Epi-
damnita to Dyrrhachmm.

232 REDUCTION OF^ VOWELS § 274

into pyrrhics ; all words of the type of vid^ tend
to be scanned as 'didi, the stress emphasising the
short syllable and the unaccented long syllable
being shortened.

To this accent also the reduction of all vowels
in unaccented syllables to the neutral vowel is to be
attributed ; hence adigo, colligo, ilico, quidlihet (root
*leijih-)', hence too the total disappearance of
vowels as in henignuSy rruUignus, etc.

PART m

WORDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS

XV. General Principles of Word Formation

275. Up to this point we have been concerned
entirely with the question of sounds, with the
changes which befall the original sounds as they
pass from the original language into those descend-
ants of it with which we have more immediately
to deal, and with the further changes which arise
from the contact of one sound with another. We
have next to treat of those groups of sounds which
are in themselves intelligible wholes and, as it were,
the small coin of language, capable of being added
together so as to make a larger whole expressing,
in many cases, more complex relationships. This
larger whole we call the sentence. But just as
words vary in length even within the Indo-Ger-
manic group from the single letter of the Latin i
or Greek rj to the mouthfiUing incurvicervicus of the
early Latin poetry or the avy/caOeK/cvaO'qareTav of
Aeschylus, so too we have sentences of all lengths.
One has only to contrast the often monosyllabic
phrases of ordinary conversation and the crisp
brevity of Tacitus or Macaulay with the long and
rounded periods of Livy or of Clarendon.

The longest sentence may give the largest number

236 STRUCTURE OF THE WORD § 276 —

of details, but it does not necessarily express the
greatest fulness of meaning. In brevity is pith ;
in moments of great mental excitement an inco-
herent exclamation may express more to the listener
than many sentences.

But properly speaking the province of the gram-
marian is not bounded even by the sentence. To
express the full meaning more than one sentence
often is required. Thus beyond the sentence lies
the paragraph, and beyond the pan^aph the com-
position as a whole. This wider field the philologist
leaves to the grammarian and the teacher of rhetoric ;
for philology proper there is little to be gleaned
beyond the area of the sentence.

276. The sentence, however, is a kingdom which
has many provinces, or to use what is perhaps a
better metaphor, it is a building in which are many
stories, all of which must be examined separately
before we can grasp with full perception the finished
whole.

(1) The first part with which we have to deal is
structure of ^^c structurc of the individual word, and

the word, j^^j.^ again we must distinguish various
parts. As has already been pointed out (§§20 ff.),
we have here (a) a root, (6) a formative suffix or
suffixes, (c) in many instances special case suffixes
in the noun or person suffixes in the verb. We
also find occasionally {d) one or more prefixes at
the beginning of the word.

(2) The distinction between noun and verb
brings us to a further point — the use of each word
in the sentence. The chief distinction no doubt

— § 277 STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE 237

is between noun and verb, but this distinction is
not necessarily one of form (§ 30). In many lan-
guages words in all outward respects structure of the
identical are used indiflferently as nouns sentence.
or as verbs. No doubt in many cases their earlier
history was different ; but in English, as we have
seen (§ 24), it is a familiar process to turn a noun
or even a combination of nouns into a verb. To
hoycott 19 a transitive verb formed within the memory
of many of us, but the type of formation is of
ancient growth.

277. Thus we see that there is a doubtful
margin between noun and verb as far as

« . T , . , , Nouns and

form IS concerned: there is no doubt- verbs: changes

« 1 . . ' . J* ' A ofmeanlng

lul margin m point of meamng. As
soon as a noun is used to make the predicate of a
sentence it has become a verb.^ It is unnecessary
to multiply examples of this, so common is the
phenomenon. One or two words in English seem
to have the happy faculty of adapting themselves
to any surroundings and so becoming all the parts
of speech in turn. Of this btU is per-
haps the best example. It begins as
an adverb and preposition, usages in which it may
still be found. " There was but one," " none but me."
In modern English its use as a conjunction is the

^ Cp. the vigorous language of Professor Whitney : — "I have
long been accustomed to maintain that any one who does not see
that a noun is a word that designates and a verb a word that
asserts, and who is not able to hold on to this distinction as an
absolute and universal one (within the limits of our family of
languages) has no real bottom to his grammatical science"
(^./.P. xui. p. 276).

238 NOUN AND PRONOUN % VTl —

ordinary one, but in the phrase " But me no buts,"
which occurs in more than one author, it appears as
a verb and also as a substantive. As an adjective
also it is not unknown, although its usage as such
is more frequent in the Scottish dialect, for example
" the but end of a house " in the sense of the outer
room. Finally hid is used also as a pronoun and
negative in combination : " Not a man but felt the
terror." ^

It has sometimes been objected to Macaulay
that he made the personal pronouns useless, by fre-
quently repeating the previous substantive instead
of employing them. To make a pro-

inpronouna, . / ° i x x- • i_

noun into a substantive is, however,
much more common, avro^ Itfyt) : " There is One
above." In many rural districts the reluctance of
wives to refer to their husbands by name leads
practically to the use of the pronoun he in the
sense of my hu^iband? In some languages the exact
reverse is true; the word for husband, lord, or
master comes to be used as an emphatic pro-
noun. Thus in Lithuanian pd^ (older pat\s),
which means husband or lord and is identical with
the Greek itoctl^, Skt. patis, and Latin potis (no

' For further details see the New English Dictionary ^ s.v,
*^ For this reluctance to use the names of persons see Tylor, Early
History ofMamJcind, pp. 189 ff. ; Herodotus, i. 146 (of the Carians) ;
iv. 184 (of the African Atarantes) ; and among the Greeks Eumaeus'
remark (Od. xiv. 145), tAf fih iydv, & ^eiycy koX o6 xapc^r* droM^i'eiy I
cUSio/Mi. Eumaeus elsewhere frequently refers to his master as
Ktiyot, 6 fUwf etc. Cp. also Theocr. xxiy. 50, di'irrarc, dfjuCks
Ta\affl^poif€s, airbi dvT€i. So in Latin ipse: Plant Rudens^ 892,
conclusit ipse in vidulum, etc

— § 278 SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE 239

longer a substantive), is often used simply as the
emphatic pronoun avrd^, and its feminine jpatX as
avrr\}

The Latin form of this word — ^potis — ogives us
an example of a substantive coming to ^^ gnbutantive
be used as an adjective and actually toaojective.,
forming a comparative as well as changing into an
adverb. In the verb 'possxim, a corruption of 'poti&
sum, the original sense, " I am master " has faded
into the vaguer "I am able." It is this change
from substantive in apposition to adjective which
according to Delbriick is the explanation of the
numerous Greek adjectives in -o- that have no
separate form for the feminine, at any rate in the
early period of the language.^ He thus explains
forms like fj/jiepo^, &17X09, and ^o-u^ov, and compares
with these words which have entirely passed into
adjectives such phrases as orv^Xov Bk yrj xal x^P^^^
(Soph. Antigone, 250), where ;^^/9cro9 is in the transi-
tion stage.

278. The readiness with which adjectives in
most languages pass into adverbs is
known to every one and requires no
illustration. But many adverbs are (1) actual case
forms of substantives, (2) relics of lost cases, or
(3) prepositional phrases ; compare Latin forte " by
"^ance," an ablatival form homfors^ viithpartim the
old accusative of the stem represented by pars, or

1 Kurschat, LU. Or. § 906.

^ SyrUaktische Forschungen, iv. p. 65 ; cp. p. 259, n.

' Found declined in Fors Fortuna, the name of the goddess, and
in the nominative in yarioas phrases AB/orsitan, i,e,/ora sU an,
which itself is also used as an adverb.

242 ANALOGY IN ENGLISH SUFFIXES § 279 —

be supposed that -able might be used as a suffix to
make an adjective from any English word or even
phrase, op. understandable, get-at-able}

A second example may be taken from Saxon
English. In the earliest English there was a
feminine suffix -estre corresponding in meaning to
the masculine -er as a noun of agency : thus O.E
bascestre, preserved in the proper name
Baxter, was the feminine of baker. But
in process of time these forms came to be regarded
as only more emphatic varieties of the forms in -er,
and most of them became masculine. At present
spinster, properly the feminine of spinner, is the only
remaining feminine word of this form. Indeed, so
completely was the original meaning forgotten that
a new feminine was formed in some cases, e.g. song-
stress, seamstress. Further, when the forms mostly
became masculine a special meaning was attached
to the suffix, and it is henceforth used contemptuously
as in pun-ster, trick-ster,^ etc.

Changes of the nature of this last specialisation
of -ster are not uncommon in many languages. In
Latin and the Germanic languages, for instance,
the suffix -w- has become identified specially with
words of colour: fvl-w^s, gil-vu-s, fla-vu-s, etc.,
English yellow, sallow. Hue, all originally -jfo-
stems.'

^ Tennyson, in a familiar letter to James Speddingin 1870, writes
"no longer the comeatable, runupableto, smokeablewith J. S. of
old " {Memoir of Tennyson hy his Son^ vol. ii. p. 94).

' Possibly this special meaning may have been influenced by
the Latin suffix -cater, which has a similar value.

s Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 64. Bloomfield, A.J,P. xii. p. 25,

— § 280 DEVELOPMENT OF SUFFIXES 243

280. The history of such developments seems to
be that the original signification of the

on . - 1 .1. 1 res CJonrae of devel-

sumx IS forgotten, and, if the sumx opment in such

" , . formations.

happens to occur frequently m some
special meaning, it comes to be regarded as con-
nected with that meaning, and is accordingly further
extended in that sense. This is true not only of
the noun, but also of the verb suffixes. Legebamini
has been already cited (§49). It is now commonly
held that the first aorist passive in Greek aorfst
Greek e-So-^i;-!/, etc., which has no p*"*^***
exact parallel in other languages, was formed by a
mistaken extension of the ending -^179 in the second
person singular (§474, 6). There is moreover some
reason for believing that many verb forms are really
compounds. In Greek XeyeaOcu has recently been
analysed into *\ey€<;, an old locative
form (§ 312), and *-^at a dative form
from the root of riOrjfu} In Latin it is possible to
analyse many subjunctive forms in a similar fashion
into locative stems followed by some part of the
substantive verb ; for instance, legis-sem is possibly
such a locative *leges, followed by a possible form
(sem = *siem) of the subjunctive stem
(Plautus) or sim, which is in reality the
ancient optative. These, however, are as yet only
possibilities; the forms of the verb have hitherto
presented graver difficulties to the philologist

^ AccordiDg to the common grammatical arrangement XiytaBeu
and other infinitives are ranked amongst verb forms. Strictly
speaking, however, aU infinitives, whether simple or compound, are
cases of a substantive.

244 ANALYSIS OF NOUN FORMS § 280 —

than those which occur in the analysis of noun
forms.

As the noun and verb forms differ in most
respects, although at some points, as has already
been shown (§49), they do overlap, it will be more
convenient to discuss the formation of substantives,
adjectives, and pronouns, and the development of their
forms and uses, separately from those of the verb.

ZVL Noun Morphology

281. All nouns are either simple or compound.
In other words, they come from one stem or from
two or more stems. X0709, for example, is a simple
noun, hiahjrfa^, airepiuiXjlrfo^ are compound nouns.

Every noun consists of a stem, and, in general, it
Parts In a noun ^^ sufl&xcs added to indicate various
form. jjg^Q relations. The stem again may in
many instances be analysed into a root and a forma-
tive suffix. But this is not true in all cases, fiov-^,
Lat. Te-8, are stems which it is impossible to analyse
further; that is to say, root and stem are indis-
tinguishable.* '>JiyO'<i consists of the stem \07-0-
and the case-suffix .9; Xoy-o- again of X07. a form
of the root (cp. the form Xey- in the verb \e7-a))
and a stem suffix which appears sometimes as -o-
and sometimes as -c (vocative Xo7-e).* On the other
hand, a word like rep-fia or Lat. ter-men can be
analysed into a root */er- and a suffix ^-men, in its

1 Compare § 181 note.

' Compare, however, the note following § 265.

— §282 DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION 245

weak fonn* -mn (§157). But here there is no case
sufiBx at all in the nominative, accusative, or vocative
singular, although such suffixes are to be found in
other cases.

When the suffix is added, not to a root, but to an
already existing stem which contains a suffixes ; pri-
STiffix, the suffix added is called a second- ""y* ««indary.
ary suffix. If more than a second suffix is added,
we ought properly to have a new name, tertiary,
etc., for each additional suffix. It is, however,
found more convenient to distinguish only a primary
and a secondary series, the latter including aU which
are not primary. In many books primary and
secondary derivatives are treated separately. This,
however, is not necessary. If there are no secondary
derivatives^ formed by means of a suffix, this fact
generally indicates that the use of the suffix to form
new words has ceased in that particular language.

282. In words, however, like SAa-Xo-70-9 and
cr7rep/Ao-Xo7-o-9 we can not only dis- compound
tinguish those parts which we have ■*®™'*
already seen in X07-0-9, but we also find a new set
of parts belonging in the former case to an indeclin-
able word well known separately as a preposition
and also as an adverb in combination with verbs.
Such indeclinable words are mostly old case forms
(§ 341) which it may or may not be possible in the
present state of our knowledge to analyse in detail.
In cnrep-fto-Xoy-o-? we seem to have as the first

^ Derivatives must be carefully distinguished from cognates;
rpoipfiov (§ 298) is a derivative from the stem of rpoiprfi ; Tp44>-(a and
Tpoit>-6'S are cognatest Tpo</>' being as primitive a form as Tp€</>-.

246 ANALOGY IN COMPOUNDS § 282 —

element a stem connected with cirkp-yji, itself a sub-
stantive like rip'fia and connected with the verbal
root found in tnreipa) ( = *cr7r€/>-£a)). But in the
paradigm of <nrep-fia we have no form airep-fio'.
Yet, as the original meaning of the word is " seed-
gatherer," there can be no doubt that the form must
be somehow connected with airep-fia. This brings
us back once more to one of the great principles of
language which have already been discussed, (nrep-
fiO' has obtained its -o- by analogy from -o-stems,
AnaioCTin thcsc being the most numerous of all.
compounS stems, ffij^ impuige in this caso was probably
given by words like Bv-fjuo-^, irpo-fM}-^, etc., which
have a stem sufiSx -/io-. As OvfjuO'/Sop-o-^ is a
regular form, (nrepiio-Xoy-o-^ irregularly obtained its
-0- from such regular forms. This change of vowel
in compounds is very common. From a stem like
avep' " man " we should have all compounds of the
same form as avipd-iroh-o-v. But, as can be seen
from any lexicon, the type of avipo-^ovo'^t etc., is
far the most common. In the formation of the cases
we find the same influence at work. This has already
been pointed out (§ 50). In Latin we have a
constant interchange between forms of the second
and forms of the fourth declension, — domi and
domus, senati (early) and senatus ; in Greek XtoKpdrrf
and irregularly XtoKparrfv.

283. Thus far examples have been taken where
it is possible to draw the line distinctly

Second part of _ . '^ . . . ^ "

compound stem between Simple noun stems and com-
pound noun stems. But it sometimes
happens that one part of a compound is so mutilated

— § 283 SUBSTANTIVE^ BECOMING SUFFIX 247

that it really becomes a formative sufl&x. A good
example of this is the English suffix -ly in man-ly,
trtb-ly, like-ly, etc. This suffix was ori-
ginally a substantive, meaning " body "
and sometimes " corpse/' the latter signification being
preserved in such forms as lych-gate and lyke-wake
(the wake or watch for the dead). Thus man-ly
originally meant man-like^ i.e, " having the body or
form of a man." In Homeric Greek we find the first
beginnings of a similar construction in the phrase,
four times repeated, fjApvavro Si/jui^ irvpo^ al0ofiivoio,
where Scfiaf; is exactly the English ''like flaming
fira" From this simple form we pass to tru-ly, i.e.
" having the form or semblance of truth." Finally
the meaning is so entirely forgotten that we actually
compound the word with itself and make the
strange form like-ly, which, though far removed in
meaning, is etymologically equivalent to "body-
body."

In Latin, Dr. Autenrieth long ago ingeniously
explained^ the adverbial suffix -Uer as
the substantive iter, and breviter as but
breve iter " short- ways." From its frequent use with
adjectives whose neuter ended in -e (earlier -i, § 165)
'iter would pass to other stems. Hence forms
like firmiter, atidacter, and many others from -o-

^ In JSb«, ii. Jahrgang (1866), p. 514. See a note in Archiv fur
latein. Lexicographie, v. 276. Osthoff had taken the same view
independently in vol. iv. of the Archiv, p. 455. Delbriick {Orundr.
Syntax, i. § 264) rejects this theory and holds that the entire series
is made on the analogy of inter, while Lindsay {L.L. p. 549) regards
them as nom. sing. masc. of stems in -tero-. None of these views
is convincing.

248 SYNTACTICAL COMPOUNDS % 283 —

stems and consonant stems, although perhaps at
every period the suffix was most common with -i-
stems^

284. In most of the forms which have been cited,
only the second member of the compound has had a
Cue forms in casc suffix, the first member appearing
compounds, merely aa a stem. In ^v-/Lto-/8o/)o-9, Oviio"
is the stem of 0v-fi6'<; but it is not a case form of
Ov'fiO'^, In many compounds, however, there is a
syntactical relation between the parts of the com-
pound and the first member is a genuine case form.
Thus Aioa-Kovpoi is only A&09 Kovpoi " sons of Zeus'' ;
StoaBoTo^ is Ato9 S0T09 "given of Zeus," a form
preserving a very old syntactical construction. In
Latin the most probable explanation of words like
itidex and vindex is that they are compounds, the first
part of which is an accusative, itis, vim. They are
therefore of the form represented by iw^oaroKo^^
an epithet of the goddess Eileithyia = fioyoviS'TOKo^
(§ 248). In late Latin proper names were some-
times thus formed, e.g, Adeodatus " Given by God,"
the name of St. Augustine's son. Gp. our own
Puritanical names Praise-God Barebones, etc. Some-
times the form might as well be given as two
words; Kfjpe<Ta'i<f>6p7jT0<i "urged on by the Fates"
is a verbal preceded by the old locative used
here in the sense of agency. So also ovopAKkvro^
might be equally well divided oi/o/ui ickxno^
"famous of name," 6voiia being the accusative.
Thus it will be seen that in some cases it is hard
to tell where juxtaposition ends and composition
begins.

— § 286 CRITERIA OF COMPOUNDS 249

285. Three means of distinction have been for-
mulated by BrUgmann.^ Three criteria to

(1) The ending of one part of the SiitiS^^SS;
compound passes into words where it j^^p<»**^o°-
would not appear in the simple form; BeoaBoTo^
follows the analogy of StoaSoro^.

(2) The first member of the compound no longer
stands in the same syntactical relation to the second.
apriL-i^CKo^ "dear to Ares," apriL-^aro^y dprji-
Krdfievo^ "slain in war," have the proper syntac-
tical meaning ; dpetOvaavo^, an epithet applied by
Aeschylus to a doughty warrior, has not.

(3) The meaning of the compound is changed
from that which the two words have when merely
placed in juxtaposition. A black bird is not
necessarily a bleu^kbird, and there is no relation in
meaning between sweet bread and sweetbread, between
a hog's head and a hogshead? In English the change
from two words to one is often marked by a change
in accent.

286. Sometimes the speakers of a language cease
to recognise the dividing line between Mistaken divi-
the parts of a compound. Thus the j!?und8°'an<riti
Greeks made from the stems of KaKo<; «»«it*» *° Q«»^'
and ipr^ov a masculine form (KaKo-epyo^) KaKovpyo^
"evildoer." This they mentally analysed as Kax-
ovpyo^ and next made irav-ovpyo^ upon this analogy.
From the form aWoS-airo'^, which is formed with

* Orundr, ii. p. 5.

' That such words have not their original form (see Skeat's
Dictionary, &v., and Kluge, s. Oxhqft) does not affect the point.
Popular etymology connected hogshead with hog*8 head.

250 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW SUFFIXES § 286

the neuter stem ^SXKjQh and the suffix found as
'inqm- in Latin long-ingtw-s, prop-inqtw-s (§139, a),
a new suffix -Sa7ro9 is made and in this way iravr-
o-Sa7ro9 arises.

In Latin, a mistaken suffix of the same kind,
viz. -lento-, is found in a certain number

Latin,

of words, lutvrleTUus " muddy," opu-lentus
(for opi-) "rich," tem-u-lerUus "drunken." This
suffix seems to have arisen from a combination of
the suffixes -ili- (or -tdi-), -ent- so frequent in parti-
ciples, and -0-. It may possibly have begun with the
single form graci-lentu-s, but this cannot be proved.^
In the Germanic languages also the same
andtheoer. phenomenon may be observed. By a
manicianKuages. ^^^^^ aualysis of the parts of a word,
the final consonant of the root has been taken as
part of the suffix and then a series of new words
has been made with this spurious suffix as their
final element. The suffix -keit used in Modem
German to form abstract substantives has arisen
from the combination of the ordinary suffix -heit
(Englisih-hood) with a A; at the end of the previous
part of the word. Thus in Middle High German
arose the form mUtec-heit or miltekeit, an^ on the
analogy of this form many others have been made :
gerechtigkeit " righteousness," dankbarkeit " thankfxil-
ness," etc.^ So too the English suffix -ling has

* Niedermann, following Wackernagel's explanation of Greek
forms in 'didris as meaning originally *' smelling of" (cp. Ov(i>difit,
i»$€ini)hTp\ contends {LF. z. pp. 242 ff.) that this suffix is con-
nected with oleo ; cp. rortUerUus, dfyoawSifs ; turbtUentuSf Tapax^Sr^s,
etc.

'^ Paul's Principien der SpraehgeschichU^, chap. ziz. p. 295.

287 GROWTH AND DECAY OF SUFFIXES 251

arisen from the addition of the sufiSx -irig to an
-/-stem and an ensuing mistaken division of the
component parts. It seems that from a few old
English words — lyteling "little child," cethding
"nobleman's son, prince," preserved in the name
Eadgar the uStheling, all the later forms, rustling,
youngling, darling, etc., have sprung.

287. It is to be remembered that these pro-
cesses do not belong to a past time Lining and dead
only ; they were not perfected in a day ^^^^^
to remain unchangeable for ever afterwards. Just
as sound change is perpetually in progress, so too
the constant growth and decay of suffixes is an
ever present factor in the history of language.
Some suffixes gradually die out and are no longer
used in the making of new words, others again
increase in importance and new words are continually
being made by means of them. Such suffixes in
English are -er for nouns expressihg the agent, -ation
for abstract substantives.^ On the other hand, the

^ A curions example of the development of a suffix in a new
meaning is the use in School and University slang of the suffix
-er as in footer for football^ hedder for bedmaker, etc. This ap-
parently senseless and whimsical change hegan, it is said, at
Harrow, where * * ducker " was used for ' ' duck pond." From Harrow
it spread to other schools and to the Universities, where in
common parlance Rugger and Socket have taken the place with
the players of Rugby and Association football of those terms
respectively, while fresher bids fair to usurp the place of fresh-
man. This is not uncommon in language; the slang of one
generation creeps into the literary dialect of the next The hybrid
word starvation, with its English root and Latin suffix, was for
long a byeword, and supplied a nickname to its inventor, who
was ever after known as Starvation Dundas.

Why the suffix -er should have been so generalised is hard to

252 METHODS OF FORMING SUBSTANTIVES § 287 —

suffix which is seen in tru-th, bir-th, and many other
words, and which corresponds to the -rt- (-o-i-) of
such Greek substantives as 0^-Tt-9, Sap-ai-^ (§133),
has ceased to make new words in English. In
Latin also this suffix, which appears in a mutilated
form in morSy pars, etc., and in its full form in
vi'ti'8, cu-H'S, etc., had ceased before the classical
period to form new words, its place being usurped
by 'tiDn- as in men-ti-o, co-ven-ti-o, etc.

288. Besides the t^o methods of forming new
substantives which have been mentioned,

Four methods of

forming new viz. (1) the addition of a formative

SUbetantlVeS. nn nr. ixrt\i

suffix or suffixes to a root, and (2) the
combination of (a) two stems or (6) two words in
actual case relationship to one another, other two
methods also occur, but need not detain us long.

The first of these is (3) Beduplication. This,
although perhaps existing in every Indo-Germanic
language, is at no time common, and for obvious
reasons. It comes into existence for the purpose of
expressing emphasis. As a child says a " big, big
house" to indicate a very big house, so language
seems to have occasionally caught up such forms
and perpetuated them in a more or less complete
shape in such words as fidp-fiap-o-^, Lat. bal-b-u-s
"babbling."^

The last method of forming new words is by the
use of (4) Vowel Gradation or Ablaut Whatever
the origin of this phenomenon it certainly did not

see. It has been ingeniously suggested that English objects to
spondaic words and so a lighter termination was used.

^ Reduplication in the verb will be discussed later (§ 446).

— § 289 A CCENT IN NOUN FORMA TION 263

at first indicate difference of meaning,^ but at a later
period was utilised for this purpose, and so words of
particular forms take to themselves vowels of a
particular grade. Thus words like X07-0-9 of the
masculine gender affect the 0- vowel in the root;
neuter words like 761/09 affect the «- vowel, although
to both rules there are exceptions. If the difference
was originally one of pitch accent as many philo-
logists think (§ 92), there is a curious parallel in
the modem English application of stress in a
similar way; thus prdgress (substantive), progress
(verb), sitbject (substantive), subject (verb), or again
cdnterU (substantive), corUirU (adjective).^

ZVn. Olassiflcation of Nouns

A. ^loot Nouns.

289. Boot nouns are those in which the case
suffixes are attached to something which it is
impossible to analyse further, in other words to a
root (§ 24). Such nouns are not very numerous in
any language, and a large proportion of them seems
to have descended from the primitive Indo-Germanic
period. Latin has developed more of them in-
dependently than any other language, except per-

* Brugmann, Orundr. ii. § 7.

^ See the interesting letter of Dr. Murray in the Academy for
1891, vol. ii. p. 466, nvho finds that, oat of 341 correspondents,
150 always accent the second syllable of eofUent, 100 always the
first syllable, and the others vary according to the meaning.

254 NOUNS FORMED WITHOUT SUFFIX § 289 —

haps Sanskrit Some do and others do not show
traces of gradation in their vowel systeuL^
(a) Boot nouns without gradation : —

Gk.

Lat Eng.

avs

sal : sal-t^

u

vis

flVf

mUs : mouse {O.E, mus)

vaD-s

nav-em^

5-5

SU'S : sow (O.E. su)

(6) Root nonns

with gradation : —

Gk.

Lat. Eng.

Pov-s (§ 181)

bO'S (§ 68) : caw

TOJ^S

(Doric T(is)

pes : fooHO.E, fot)

zt;}«i8i)

/^^.etcj^ r«.e..«^,)«

For an explanation of the origin of these forms
see note after § 265.

*

B. Nouns with formative suffixes.

290. As far as can at present be ascertained, the
number of suffixes originally used in the

Noun suffixes. « .. ^ 1 i

formation of nouns was not very large.
But from the earliest period their number has been
continually added to by combinations of two or more

^ It is a common mistake to suppose that all monosyllabic
nouns are root nouns. This is by no means the case.

2 ^ is a further suffix which may possibly have also once be-
longed to the Latin word, if the verb sallo represents an earlier
*sal-d-o,

' This original root word has passed over in Latin to the t-
declension in the nom. ndv-is, nar-«m= Ionic vrj-a ( = *n/Qf-i2i).

♦ Tuesdays TiM;-«-<ia5 {Tiwes gen. of Tin) ; others say Tiu=^
^dei^ios.

— § 291 NOUNS CONTAINING SUFFIXES 255

suffixes, <ro<f>'(0'T€pO'^ ; Lat. pos-tu-mu-s (§ 394), etc.
Although some of these combinations date from a
time before the separation of the original Indo-
Germanic community, most of them are of late
origin. Hence many series of forms occurring
in individual languages have no parallels in the
sister tongues, and the discussion of such forms
properly belongs to the grammar of the language
in question.

Of all suffixes -o- is the most common^; to it or
the various suffixes ending in -o-, as -mo-, -no-, -ro-,
-to-, -jfo-, -J0-, the great majority of nouns belong. A
considerable number of -i- and -u- stems also exist.
There are, moreover, many consonant stems, such as
those which end in -?i-, -r-, and -s-. Besides these
stems, which include a very large proportion of the
whole, there are others ending in dental and guttural
stops, which will be mentioned in their proper places
(^ 346-350).

As regards the original signification of these
formative suffixes it is at present idle Their significa-
to speculate. In individual languages **®°-
we do find particular suffixes set apart to indicate
special meanings, but, in some cases, we find the
same suffix specialised in different senses in different
languages. Some suffixes too seem to have no well-
defined meaning, but are employed in a great variety
of usages.

291. The suffix which has apparently the most

' As almost every consonant stem has an -o-fonn by the side of
it, the theory that all stems were originally -o-stems has strong
claims to acceptance. Cp. note after § 265 and § 344 n.

256 GENDER IN SUFFIXES % 291 —

definite meaning is -a. In all the languages which
in any degree retain the different original
and feminine declensions this suffix indicates, femi-
nine gender. In adjectives this suffix
most commonly, fonns the feminine to«those stems
which, in the masculine and neuter, belong to the
-0- class. Thus we have i/€09, vkov, novus, novum,
but pea, TWVCL

From the widespread use of this suffix to indicate
the feminine gender, most granmiarians have con-
sidered this its original use. Eecently, however,
firugmann has contended that -a had originally
nothing to do with gender, but was utilised in this
way because some words, such as the Indo-Germanic
word for woman *gVna, Boeotian /5avd, etc. (§ 140, a),
happened to end originally with this vowel.^ That
the original meaning of a suffix may be forgotten,
and that it may be used in quite a different meaning
and with quite a different purpose from its original
one, we have already seen (§ 283). But the
uniform employment of -a to indicate feminine
gender shows that the suffix has been so used ever
since a time preceding the separation of the Indo-
Germanic peoples. Earlier than that it is un-
necessary for our purposes to go, and therefore we
may leave the original meaning of this suffix as well
as of the others undecided.

* Techmer's Zeitschrift, vol. iv. p. 100. An acute controversy is
still raging on the subject Cp. Brugmann's Princeton lecture
(1897), The Nature and Origin of the Noun Genders in the LE,
Languages, and an article on the origin of grammatical gender by
B. I. Wheeler (Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. pp. 528 fF.), to
which is appended a bibliography.

— § 293 GENDER IN SUFFIXES 257

292. The -i- and -w- stems are of all genders.
Of the consonant stems, those in -«r-, since they
mostly express the agent, are largely Gender m other
masculine ; words in -en-, -(m-, and -5 are 8^*<»-
also of all genders, particular grades of the suffix
being, however, to some extent specialised for
particular genders. As soon as a substantive is
used in an adjectival sense, or in some usage for
which it was not originally intended, it may and
frequently does change its gender. Hence the use
of -o-stems as feminines (§ 55). In compounds
also the same is true. Originally a compound
substantive was of the gender of its final component.
Thus poSoSa/eTi;Xo9 meant properly " Rose-finger " as
a substantive and was masculine.^ As we know it
in Homer, however, it is an adjective " rosy fingered,"
and consequently, although it keeps its original
ending, it is made to agree with ^(09 a feminine
word. 0vfioj36po^ is also properly a substantive
" soul-devourer," but when made to agree with a
neuter substantive like Trfjfm, it takes the form
Ovfio/Sopov. When the -s-stems are used in this
way they form a new nominative and accusative.
Thus, /i6]/09 is a neuter word, but from the same
stem we have Ev/x^x/179 a masculine name, and the
same form (oxyton) as adjective for feminine as well
as masculine, with the form exffievh for the neuter.

293. As has been said, -o-forms go hand in
hand with -a-forms. Even before the
separation of the Indo-Germanic peoples, grammatical
-o-forms had been used to indicate

1 Delbrttck, S,F, iv. p. 12, and Orundr, Syntax, i. § 198.
S

258 RELATIONS OF NATURAL SEX § 293 —

masculine and neuter stems, while -a-forms indi-
cated cognate feminineS. But this purely gram-
matical gender was crossed by the influence of
natural gender or by that of other words of cognate
meaning. Tpo<l>6^ is properly a word of masculine
form and, since iraiha/yfoyo^ is not an
early word, was once applicable to such
a guardian as Phoenix was to Achilles. But, in
later times, rpoi^o^ indicates duties more frequently
discharged by women and becomes feminine, while
a new masculine form Tpo<f>€v^ begins to appear.
All the while a feminine word rpo^i^ has been used
to indicate that which the rpoifio^ supplies. To
express another idea arising from Tpo<l>ii we have
another word formed — rpo^eiov, or in the plural
rpoifyeia, the return made by the child for the Tpo<f>ij
which he has received. This word is in the neuter
and is formed by adding another sufBx to that
already existing.

Some -a- (in Greek most frequently -td-) stems
become masculine and, when they do so,

Masculine -ti- i o t • ^ i

stems in Greek generally take final -s m Greek and

and Latin. ? i • • • / f

form the genitive m -ov, TroXi-rfj-^, ttoXl-
Tov. Some stems of this kind in Homer are said to
be crystallised vocative forms ^ and have no final -s,

^ This is Brugmann's view, Curtias' Stitdien, ix. pp. 259 ff. But
Schmidt from eOpOora ZciJs argues for a different origin {PlurcUbil-
dungen d. idg. NeiUra^ pp. 400 ff. }. According to Schmidt, c^/MWa
" wide-eye " is a neuter Bubstantive in apposition to Zei/s (cp. origin
of Lat. vetua). As €iip{to7ra was used unchanged with vocative as
weU as ace. and nom., genuioe vocative forms like fiV^Lera were
also used for the nominative, and new forms were made on the
same analogy. The two views, however, are not mutually ex-

— §294 AND GRAMMATICAL GENDER 259

imroray etc. In Latin scriba, agridola, etc., are
masculine. In only one or two instances in old
Latin does a final -s appear, pariddas. These
words are said to have been (1) original
abstracts, next (2) collectives, and finally
(3) specialised for individuals. Compare English
youth and tnUh which are (1) abstracts, the state of
being young and true respectively ; (2) collectives,
" the youth of a country," etc. ; (3) specific, " many
youths," " mathematical truths," etc. So ^0X4-717-9
would be (1) citizenship (abstract), (2) the body of
citizens (collective), (3) a citizen (specific).

294. When -a-stems change to masculines, when
such words as Tpo<\>6^ become feminines, Qender in words
we have examples of the influence of jS^^^thSSt
natural sex upon grammatical gender. "®^
^1/709, Lat. fagU'S, and other names of trees are
feminine for another reason. As it happens, in
both languages the generic words for tree, hpv-^,
arbos, are feminine. Accordingly the generic word
draws over the words indicating the individual
species to its own gender.^ Hence the rule that
independently of the character of the suffix all
names of trees in both Greek and Latin are femi-
nine (§ 55).

elusive ; eipOofra may be a neuter nominative, firjTlera a crystallised
vocative ; for such vocatives cp. Scott's Dominie Sampson, where
Dominie is the crystallised Lat. voc. domine, and the Anglo-Gaelic
Christian name ffamishf which is really the voc. of the Gaelic
Seumas (James). In Latin luppUer is such a form (cp. ZeO rdrep).
^ In Greek, according to Delbriick, the generic word follows
the special words, S,F, iv. p. 6. Delbriick now is more doubtful
(Ormdr, Syntax, 1. § 3).

260 THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN § 294 —

But now we are face to face with a difficult
question. Why should the generic word for a tree
be feminine ? ^ Why should not everything which
has no natural sex be also of the neuter gender in
grammar ? To this question there is at present no
satisfactory reply. The older philologists relied
upon the "personifying tendencies" of primitive
man. The existence of such tendencies is denied
by some of the greatest of recent scholars.^ But

^ Cp. Gow, ** Notes on Gender, especially in Indo-European
Langaages" i^Jowrwtl of Philology, x. pp, 39 ff.).

* For instance, by Bnigmann in Techmer^s ZeUschrifty iv. pp.
100 ff. The ingenious suggestion propounded by Dr. J. G. Frazer
(Fortnightly Review^ January 1900, pp. 79 ff.) to the effect that the
different forms for masculine and feminine descend from a time
when the word expressed, not the gender of the object, but the
sex of the speaker, seems to raise at least as many difficulties as it
would solve. Wheeler, in the article referred to in § 291 n. (cp.
Ckua, Rev, iii. pp. 390 ff.), contends plausibly— (1) that the pronoun
alone had from the beginning different forms for the different
genders ; (2) that from the pronoun, which often becomes an
article, forms with the same ending were introduced into the
substantive and adjective for the feminine (*5d le^qos becoming *8&
Uifqdj etc.) ; (3) that there are two classes of original Idg. neuter
forms — (a) that which ends in -m and comprises "individualised
nouns capable of forming plurals as a sum of individualised units " ;
(b) that which has no -m ending and comprises "names of material,
inert matter, mass, or substance of being or action," e.g. salt, liver,
water, fixture {*dhe-mn), metal, work, etc. ; (4) that neuters in
•om were "originally forms of individualised o-nouns representing
the passive recipient" (in other words, the accusative), "as dis-
tinguished from the «- forms which represented the bearer and
exponent of the action." When on Streitberg's theory (note after
§ 265) the o-vowel was lost, these forms provided most of the
masculines and feminines of the 3rd declension. " After that had
taJten place, and, with the development of the conventional economy
of the sentence, after the feeling for a nominative as the gram-
matical subject, whatever the attitude (voice ?) of the verb, had

— § 295 OF GRAMMATICAL GENDER 261

there are certainly traces of such personification in
the language of English sailors, who talk of a ship as
" she." And if it be true that the ideas of primitive
man stand in the same relation to modem thought as
the child stands to the grown man, such tendencies
to personification will not seem at all wonderful.
To the child ever3rthing is alive, and deserving of
reward or punishment even as he himself is.

The two reasons assigned, viz. (1) the influence
of natural sex, and (2) the influence of the gender
of cognate words, will explain a large number, but
very far from the whole, of the phenomena of
gender. Why oIko^ and viXfm should be masculine
while hdyLo^ is masculine in Greek and domus femi-
nine in Latin, we do not know. Even if we assign
the change of gender to the working of analogy, it
is not easy to suggest the model, imitation of which
caused the change.

Gender.

295. The Indo-Germanic noun is characterised
as such by the possession of special features to

emerged, words which by virtue of their value as denoting things
had been chiefly used in the m-form, so long as the verb was
usually the name of an action set forth in an actor named with
the ff-form, now began to appear and be used as nominatives, and
in this m-form, which had meanwhile come to be identified with
their substance." In this they were aided by the analogy of the
neuters of class (&), which did not distinguish nom. from ace.
As Wheeler says (p. 541), this theory provides an explanation for
three points hitherto left unexplained, viz. (1) why neuters in
-0- have a special ending peculiar to themselves ; (2) why nom. and
ace. neuter are alike ; (3) why neut. nom. and masc. ace. are alike
in the o-declension and nowhere else.

262 GENDER IN NOUN STEMS § 296 —

mark the presence of Gender, of Number, and of
Case. But the distinguishing marks of all of these
need not co-exist in any one word.

In -0 -stems, the suflBx -s in the nominative
Gender in .0- generally marks a masculine, occasion-
stems ; ^y ^ feminine word ; -m (changed to -v
in Greek) in the nominative marks the neuter. The
in ^. and -tt- "^ ^^ ^^ ^ud of the uominative in an
stems; _^_ ^^ .^ ^^^ indicates that the word

is either of the masculine or of the feminine

gender, the absence of any suffix that such a stem

in^«id.i.(4e.) ^s neuter. -a-stems (§ 291) and -t-

stems; ^,^_j stcms are in the Indo-Germanic

languages generally feminine, and have originally no

nominative suffix in the singular. Nasal and liquid

stems as a rule have no -s-suffix in the nominative,

in nasal and whatcvcr their gender may be. Neuter

uqnid stems; gender is, however, generally indicated

by the appearance of the stem suffix in its weak

grade as sonant nasal or liquid (see § 82); cp.

rip-fjLa, Lat. termen (neuter) with rep-fUDv, Lat. ter-

mo (masculine) ; fjir-ap, jec-ur (r),^ axayp (r .?), cal-

car, with ira-rrfp, pater, Sd-Toyp, da-tor, etc. In -s-

stems, nouns of the neuter gender end in -09, -69, or

-a9 in Greek, yjrevSo^, ylrevSe^, yepa^ ; in

-OS (-i4s) or -is (gen. -eris) in Latin,

those in -is, however, having as a rule changed their

gender before the historical period, while those

^ The Sanskrit form yakji may, as some authorities hold, have
an additional suffix 4. If the 4 is original, ^-ap, jec-ur represent
an original ^i^qjt' On the question of long sonant nasals, etc., cp.
§§ 82, 154.

— § 296 NUMBER IN INDO'GERMANIC 263

corresponding to the type of the Greek -€9 have
disappeared. Thus forms like gen-vs alone survive
in perfection. The masculines and feminines of -s-
stems appear in Greek as -0)9 and -179, alS-m,
eirfeV'Tj^ ; in Latin as -ds or -or, honOs {honor), arbos
(arbor). The type corresponding to the Greek -1^9
is represented only by the fragment de-gener. Mute
stems, except those which end in -tU-^ mark mascu-
line or feminine gender by the addition

- _ . ^ _ . . .1 in mut« stems.

of -s ; when the gender is neuter, the
stem is left without suffix, the stem-ending or some
part of it also disappearing if the phonetic laws of
the language so require (cp. r^oKa with 7a\a/eT-o9,
Latin lac with lad-is).

Number.

296. The original Indo-Germanic language dis-
tinguished three numbers, the Singular, the Dual, and
the Plural. The diflferent numbers in the noun are
each characterised by their own suffixes (cp. § 34).

Some kinds of substantives, as abstracts, col-
lectives, and nouns of material, may be pi^rai m
expected to occur only in the singular. »bet«<^t "ouns. -
But in all languages such words frequently occur in
the plural. Thus in English we speak not only of
sugar and vriTi/e, but also of sugars and wines, mean-
ing thereby diflferent forms or kinds of the material.
So in Latin, plurals like vina, cames ; veritates,
avaritiae occur.^

^ See § 306 note.

' See Draeger, ffistorisehe Syntax der lattinisehen Sprachey^ §§ 4-8.

264 HISTORY OF THE DUAL § 297

297. Other words may be expected to occur

only in the dual, Su©, a/i^o). But never-
theless such words are often inflected as
plurals. It may indeed be conjectured that the
dual is merely a specialisation of one out of many
original forms of the plural. Be that as it may,
the earliest historical use of the dual which we can
trace seems to have been to express things which
occur (a) naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears,
the hands, etc. ; or (&) artificially in pairs, as the
two horses of a chariot. Later the dual is used for
a combination of any two things. In the first sense
Its earliest ^^ ^^0 is quitc distiuct from that of

^^^®* the plural. But as soon as the dual
comes to be applied to any two things without re-
gard to their being naturally a pair, and without
any emphasis being laid on the idea of duality, it
becomes a grammatical luxury; it has no sense
separate from that of the plural and consequently it
speedily dies out.

When things are thought of in pairs, every pair
may be regarded as a unity and be followed by a
singular verb, though this construction is not very
common. It is worth observing that the dual in
Greek is rarely used without hita unless when the
objects referred to are a natural or artificial pair,^ and
this agrees with the use of the dual in Vedic Sanskrit.

In Latin dvjo and ambo are the only surviving
Dual lost in ^ual fomis, and these are inflected in

^*^°- the oblique cases as plurals.

298. The use of the plural which calls most for

1 Cp. Monro, H.G,^%\n.

— § 298 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL 265

remark is that in Greek and the Aryan languages a
neuter noun in the plural is followed by a verb in
the singular. The reason for this is that

, . , . , 1 1 . , Neuter plural

things which make a class or set by with singular
themselves may be treated as a unity.
But in the historical period they are so treated only
when the word is neuter, although it may be con-
jectured that all plural forms were originally col-
lective. An ingenious theory has been recently
revived ^ which endeavours to prove that the nomina-
tive plural neuter is no genuine plural at all, but
a collective singular. It is argued by another
writer * that in many cases where a plural verb is
put with a neuter plural in Homer, this arises from
a later corruption ; thus the earlier reading in Uwd
ii. 135, according to this theory, was anrdpra
XiKvrai for the ordinary airdpra XiKwrai, The
converse of this usage, the use of a singular verb
with a masculine or feminine substantive in the
plural, usually known as the ScJiema Pindaricma^

^ By JohanDoa Schmidt, PluralbUdungen der indog, Neutra
(1889), pp. 1 ff.

3 J. WackerDagel, K.Z, 80, p. 808.

' The name is not very appropriate, if we may judge by Pindar's
extant works, in which good examples are rare. The best is Pyth,
X. 71, iv S* dyaSoiffi KcTrai \ irar/x^ccu KtSyal ToXiup Kv^eppdatet,
(Bergk and Gildersleeve with some MSS. read /ceivrac.) ApoUonius
{de Syntaxif p. 224) quotes as from Pindar, dxctrai 6^i0cU /jLcXiatf viw
ai^Xoif {FrcLg, 75. 17 Bergk). Examples are as common in English
as in Greek ; cp. A.V. 1 Corinthians^ xiii. 13 : And now abideth
faiihy hope, charity, these three, where abideth represents iih€i of the
original. With there it is very common : There's daggers in 7nen*s
smilesj Shakspeare, Macbeth, ii. 4. 122. English, howerer, often
uses a singular verb after a double subject : Thou kmno'st that
Banquo, and his Fleanee, lives {Macbeth, iii. 2. 37). Cp. Haydon

266 THE DEVELOPMENT OF COLLECTIVE §298 —

has an entirely different explanation. Here the
verb commonly precedes the subject. Consequently,
it is argued, the writer or speaker changed his
mind as to the form of his sentence while he was
in the act of writing or speaking it; hence the
illogical sequence of a singular verb and a plural
noun.

299. The theory which explains the neuter plural

nominative as a collective singular is
plain this con- supportcd uot ouly (1) by its occurrence

with a singular verb in the Greek and
Aryan languages, but also (2) by the fact that
frequently a neuter plural is formed to a masculine
or feminine singular — 0 gIto% but tA crtra, 17
K&sj^vOo^ but in Homer £7/3^ /ci\€vOa; Latin locus
but locay siMvs but sHUa} etc. ; while, on the other
hand, a masculine or feminine plural to a neuter
singular hardly occurs at all. It has also been
observed by various writers that when a masculine
or feminine and a neuter plural both appear in the
same word, the neuter plural has generally a collec-
tive meaning.^ As the personal pronouns of the
plural number were originally inflected in the
singular and passed over to the plural inflexion at
a later period (§ 327), so it is contended that the

{A, J. P. xi. pp. 182 ff.), who shows that many of the examples
cited in Greek grammars do not properly come under this head.

1 Schmidt, Pluralb. p. 5.

^ Cp. with this what has happened in the development of Latin
into the Romance languages. As in Latin nom. and ace. pi. neut.
are the same in form as the nom. sing, fern., neuter nouns whose
plural has a collective sense became feminine, thus folium "leaf,"
folia ** leafage," but/oZu orfoliae "leaves."

299 FORMS INTO THE NEUTER PLURAL 267

original genitive oi juga was *jugds, not *jugdm, but
that later it took the same inflexion as the masculines
because the neuters and masculines had most cases
the same in the other numbers. Since in other
numbers the neuter has the same form for nomin-
ative and accusative, in the plural jugd, originally
only nominative, comes to be used also as accusative.
(3) It is also urged that many languages do use
collective singular forms instead of the neuter
plurals. Homer uses irpoPaai^ for Trpo/Sara (Od.
ii 75), Herodotus OepairqLrj for Oepdirovre^ (v. 21).
Latin has juverUus, English youth, for juvenes and
young men respectively (§ 293), and similar usages
appear in other Indo-Germanic languages. (4) A
further support is found for the theory in the fact
that in the same language the same word has both
a neuter and a feminine form, or that kindred
languages show, one the plural, the other the
feminine form. Thus we find ipeiravov and Zpe-
TrdvTf, vevpov and vevprj, Homeric tA ^via, but Attic
17 rfvia pi. fjvLai, ^vXov but ^vXij (post-Homeric) ;
Latin caementum and caementa, labium and labea ;
O.H.G. n^ma n. but O.E. n£im f., 0. Saxon gi-
lagu n. pi. but O.E. lagu f. sing, "law." (5) A
plural is often used in the predicate where only a
single object is in question, as in Homer B&pa Si toi
Bd)aa) KcChJov OpovoVy aif)0iTov aei, 'xpvaeov {II. xiv.
238), K€ivo^ dvTfp . . . aSOi kw&v p^irqdpa
yh/otro (II. xiii. 233); Latin ncTiw me lacrumis
decoret neque funera fletu faxit (Ennius* Epitaph),
per dipeum Vkdcani, dona parentis (Virg. Aen. viii.
729); compare the. frequent use of colla, gvitura,

268 COLLECTIVES USED OF INDIVIDUALS § 299 —

ara, fedora where only one object of the kind is
meant. (6) These collectives come to be used for
individual members of the class, because they ex-
press originally the nature or characteristic which
the members of the class have in common ; hence
avyyheia, signifying first kinship then kinsfolk, is
used of a single person (Eur. Orest, 733); Latin
custodia is used in the same way (Ovid, Met, viii.
684); in German stvte, originally the same as
English stvd (of horses), has come to mean steed and
finally rnare, and frauensdrMoer, literally "women's
chamber," ffynaeceum, became first a collective word
for " women " and since the seventeenth century has
been used for " a woman." ^ From trtUh an abstract
quality we pass in English to the comparative con-
creteness of " mathematical truths," a development
parallel to that of ycmth which has been so often
cited (cp. § 293).

Noun Cases.

300. In the original Indo-6ermanic language the
noun possessed at least seven cases: Nominative,
Accusative, Genitive, Ablative, Dative, Locative,
and Instrumental. In the Instrumental some
authorities have discovered traces of an amalgama-
were two sepa- ^^^^ ^^ ^^o originally separate cases —
^Md^ta tiieX- *^ Instrumental properly so called and
stminentai? ^ Comitativc or Sociative case. But the
existence of such an original distinction is very
doubtful, and any observable diflference of meaning

> Schmidt, Pluralb, p. 25.

— § 303 DEFECTS OF THE CASE SYSTEM 269

may be attributed to the fact that inanimate objects
as a rule must be spoken of as instruments, animate
objects as companions or helpers.

301. The relations expressed by these seven
cases are not, however, all that could

, Indo - Gennanic

have been mdicated by means of cases, system of cases

_, _ i -w-i. . 1 1 incomplete.

Some languages, such as Fmmsh, have
a much larger number of cases and by this means
express greater definiteness of relation than it is
possible to express by the seven Indo -Germanic
cases, which cannot distinguish, for example, between
rest in and rest on, motion into and motion towards,
motion from and motion from out of. All of these
notions are distinguished by separate cases in the
more complex Finnish case system.

302. In the enumeration of cases the vocative
is not reckoned as a case. Among noim ^he vocative not
forms — especially in the -o-stems — the **^^-
vocative of the singular stands apart, precisely as the
singular of the imperative stands apart — especially
in the -o-verbs. Xo7e in the noun, X^e in the
verb are simply stem- forms without anything to
mark them as belonging to a paradigm of forms.
Neither has any suffix besides that which marks
the stem; Xo7£ has nothing to mark a case rela-
tion, Xeyc nothing to mark a person of the verb.
In some stems, and always in the neuter gender,
the nominative serves for the vocative in the singular ;
in the plural the nominative discharges the function
of the vocative in all stems.

303. Cases originally existed in all three Numbers,
Singular, Dual, and Plural. But in the dual and

270 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF % 303

plural, separate forms for each of the cases were
apparently not found necessary. This is

No separate ^^ •^ « i i . , , , .

forms for some truc at any rate for the cUttive and a dMi ve

plural The dual forms vary so much
in diflferent languages, and the whole system is already
so rapidly decaying even in the earliest historical
period, that it is impossible to restore with certainty
the dual paradigm except in the forms which served
indifferently for nominative, vocative, and accusative.
In the singular there are separate endings for the
individual cases. In all stems, however, except the
-0- stems, there is but one form from the earliest
period for genitive and ablative. Stems ending in
nasals, liquids, -a- or -f- (-t^-) have no case ending
for the nominative, which in masculine or feminine
forms of nasal or liquid stems is expressed by a
difference of gradation in the stem suffix (^354 ff.).
Neuter forms except in the -o-stems have no suffix
in the nominative, vocative, and accusative singular,
all of which are indicated by the same form in all
neuter stems. In the -o-stems, the nominative of the
neuter has the same form as the accusative of the
masculine (cp. ^vyo-v, jugu-m, with oIko-v, vicu-m) :
whether there was any original connexion in meaning
between the two has still to be proved (§ 294).
304. As regards the origin of case suffixes in
the Indo-Germanic languages we know
* nothing. They exist from the earliest
historical period as an integral part of the noun
form, and therefore are beyond the reach of Com-
parative Philology. Various theories, based mainly
on the analogy of other languages where the noun

§ 304 INDO'GERMANIC CASE SUFFIXES 271

remains in a more primitive stage of development,
have been propounded. Some authorities hold that
the suflBxes are pronominal in origin, others that
they are of the nature of post-positions. The whole
question is too speculative to be discussed here. It
is enough to say that the reasoning is largely a
priori and therefore uncertain ; but the probability
is that the nominative suffix is deictic

Endings prono*

or pronommal. The same may be said minai and post-

, . 1 -I . . *. ^1 positional.

but With more hesitation of the accusa-
tive suffix, while in the other cases it seems more
likely that the suffixes are post-positions indicating
originally some kind of local relation. In German
books it is customary to divide the GmmmaticaUnd
cases into "grammatical" and "local." locaica^es.
To the latter group belong such as the ablative and
locative, which distinctly show a local meaning;
to the former are assigned those cases, such as the
genitive and dative, where the local meaning, if ever
existent, has been in process of time obscured. But to
call a case " grammatical " is no aid to the elucidation
of its history, and all that we know of language goes
to show that the vague usages ranked under this
indefinite heading are in all probability developed
from earlier simple and concrete local uses.^

^ Cp. Whitney (TraTisaciions of the American PhUologicdl Associa-
tioUy vol. xiii. p. 92) : '* There is no such thing in language as an
originally grammatical case or form of any kind." The same writer
in reviewing Delbriick's Altindische SyrUax says {A.J.P, xiii. 285) :
*'To pronounce a case originally grammatical is simply equivalent
to saying that its ultimate character lies beyond our discovery ;
and the statement miglit much better be made in the latter form.
For to postulate such a value at the very beginning is to deny

272 CAUSES OF THE DISAPPEARANCE § 305

305. In the later history of the separate

languages, there is a constant tendency

ayncretism in to rcduce the number of case forms.

This tendency may arise from one or all
of several causes : —

(i.) Phonetic, as when -5w, the suffix of the
instrumental plural of -d-stems, becomes confused
in Greek with that of the locative -oi5(i) in oXkoi^
and oXicouTL, or as when in Latin the ablative
singular of -o-stems by losing its final -d- becomes
confused with the instrumental {vicOd and vico),

(ii) Syntactic, when one case extends the area
of its usage at the expense of another. Such ex-
tensions of usage are analogical There is a doubt-
ful margin where either case might be legitimately
used; for some cause the one case becomes more
prevalent than the other within this borderland
and afterwards gradually encroaches on the proper
domain of its vanquished opponent The confusion
between " rest in" and " motion towards," which we
find exemplified in the English usage " Come here "
for " Come hither," is widely developed in case
usages in other languages. The cases could express
relationship only in a very general way. Hence
arose the use of adverbs to go with cases in order
to make the meaning more specific. These adverbs,
which we now call prepositions, in time become the
constant concomitants of some cases ; and when

the whole known history of language, which shows that all
forms begin with something material, apprehensible by the senses,
palpable. . . . Such an explanation simply betrays a false philo-
sophy of langaage."

§306

OF ORIGINAL CASE FORMS

273

this has happened, there is an ever-increasing ten-
dency to find the important part of the meaning in
the preposition and not in the case ending.

(iii.) A third cause may be found in the less
frequent use of some cases. The smaller number
of separate forms for plural use, and the greater
tendency to confusion in plural as compared with
singular forms, seems to be owing to the fact that
plural forms are less needed and are in less frequent
use than singular forms. The dual is less used
than either the singular or the plural and its forms
are more corrupted.

The following table will show the degree and
manner of confusion which has affected at the
earliest period the original cases in Latin, Greek,
and the Germanic languages ^ : —

Idg.

Dat.

Loc. Instr.

Abl.

Gen.

Lat.

Dat.

Gen.«

Abl.

Gk.

Dat. (Loc.)

Gen.

Germ.

,

Dat.

Gen.

^ Cp. Hubschmann, Casualehre, p. 87.

^ In -0- and -d- stems represented by the locative.

274 INDO-GERMANIC CASE FORMS § 306

XVm. Oase Suffixes

A, Singular

306. i. (a) Stems which end in -0-, -i- (including
-4"» ^365 fif.), 'Vr- (including -«j^-), or a mute con-
sonant, and possibly all root words made

Nominative. - - \^ Ji • ^- • i c

originally the nominative singular 01
masculine and feminine forms in -s; oIkO'<; mcu-s,

ot-9 ovi-8, «Su-9 manus BaaiXcv-^,

Ooapa^ avdax, t-? m-s, etc. All others
have the stem suffix only, -a-stems when they
become masculine in Greek add the -9, veavia^, etc.
without ^nd. (§ 293). There are also one or two
^"^- examples in Latin, as paricida-s. In
stems which end in nasals or liquids it seems that
the final nasal or liquid was either always dropped
or there were double forms with and without the
final consonant sound, the use of which depended on
the phonetics of the sentence (cp. §§235 ff.). Com-
pare ripfuov with Lat. termo, Skt. (vd with kvwv,
Skt. pUd with iraTTjp, Lat. pater. The lengthened,
strong form is regular for the nominative of such
stems (cp. irarrfp with irarip-a, etc.).

i. (6) In the -o-stems the neuter is formed by

adding -m (Greek -1;, § 148) : tvyo-v,

Norn, neuter. ^ . ° ^ y ' \, \ ^ \'

Lat. jugu-m. In all other stems the
neuter has no suffix, but the stem suffix, if it has
gradation, appears in the weak grade.^

^ In words of whatever gender, phonetic changes according to
the regular laws of the language take place in the ending, dra^

— § 308 INDO-GERMANIC CASE FORMS 275

307. ii The vocative is originally a stem form
(§ 302). Hence the vocative proper has no case
suflix : oZ#c€, TToTu, Ix'^v, ava ( = *avaKT), Zed. In
most stems without a nominative suffix

the vocative has a different grade from
the nominative : vvfjxfyrf (-d), voc. vvfKf>d (Homer) ;
nrarrfp, voc. irdrep ; ScUfMov, voc. Sai/Aov, Except in
-o-stems, Latin has replaced the separate vocative
form by the nominative, or the forms have become
phonetically indistinguishable.

Neuters have no vocative form separate from
the nominative form.

308. iii. The suffix of the accusative^ is -m,
which is sonant after a consonant, con-

^ TT * » Accusative.

sonant after a sonant. Hence *ped-m
sonant^ ^^^oiSco-vi consonant.^ Greek has thus oIko-v,
oi'V, ^Sv'V, I'V, Oed'Vy nroTvuL'V (originally an -i-
(-i^-) stem, § 374), Latin mcu^m, secuH-m, mantt-m,
vi-m, dea-m, luxurie-m (an -^-stem), in all of which
the consonant sound appears. On the other hand,
Greek irarip-a, iroLfUv-a, alB& {= ^alBoa-a),
0(opaK'a, ^ipovT-a, Latin pair -em, honiin^em^
arbor-em, andac-em, ferent-em, show the sounds
which represent original -m.

for *4i'aiCT-j, Lat. rSx for *rSg-8. Gk. ipipwy for ^hheront-a is ex-
ceptional compared with 6bo6i for *odont-8 and in not yet satis-
factorily explained (see § 362). So also in neuters ^dXa for
*ya\aKTy Lat. ktc for *lact{e).

^ For this and the other forms cp. Andouin, De la (Uclinaison
dans les larigues indo-europ^enes (Paris 1898).

^ This is practically accurate. No doubt originally *pedm kept
the consonant -m when the following word began with a sonant,
but the separate languages did not retain the double forms.

276 HISTORY OF THE SUFFIXES § 308

In the neuter the accusative is the same as the
nominative.

309. iv. The suffix of the genitive appears as
Gradation in "^j "^^^ '^ ^ith gradation. Consonant
genitive sufflx. ^^^^ f^^,^^ ^j^j^ gradation appear in

their weak grade in the genitive. In the -o-stems
the suffix is -0 + sjo(-e + sjo), apparently the same
su$x as in other stems with a pronominal element
"jp added.^ In. the -a- and -f- (-i^-) stems there is
a diflference of accentuation between rifii], Spyvia
in the nominative and rifirj^, opyvta^ in the genitive,
which, as similar phenomena in Lithuanian and
other languages show, reaches back to proethnic
times. In Greek the -09 form of the genitive is
kept in the later period with all consonant stems,
including also root words like ttovv, Zeu?, etc. :
irarp-o^, irotfiev-o^y iroi-o^, etc. -9 appears in the
primitive genitival form S€9- ( = *S€yx-9) in iea-
TTOTrjf; " house-lord." In Latin, -es, which becomes
phonetically -is (§ 161), is generalised in all con-
sonant stems exactly as -os is in Greek. In early
inscriptions a few traces of the -os suffix are found,
Venerus, etc. The case suffix, which in Greek is
contracted with -17 (-a) is presumably -es^; if -os, we
should have expected the genitive to appear as -©9
not -179 (-09). -9 is the suffix in Latin ovi-s, manU'S,
etc.; but there is in ovi-s apparently a confusion
with -is for earlier -es, since in -i- and -u- stems the
original genitive form seems to have ended in either

1 Hirt, I,F. ii. pp. 130 ff.

' According to Streitberg'a explanation (cp. § 271) the ending
was 'SO originally.

— § 309 OF THE GENITIVE SINGULAR 277

-^•-s (-OJ-S), -ejf-s (-o^s) or -j-es (-j-os), -i^-es (.j^05).i
mawTl-s may represent an older *ma7io^5, whether
as an original form or as the Latin phonetic repre-
sentative of original ^mane^-s^ (§ 178). Strong
forms of the stem appear also in Greek: 178^-09
( = *i7S€f -09), Homeric /8a<r6X^(f)-09, Attic fiaaCKAw^
by metathesis of quantity, Ionic iSaa-iXio^ ; Tragic

7ro\€09, etc. = *7roX€A-09.*

In Latin the original genitive of -0-, -a-, and -l-
(-ii) stems has disappeared. Of 'O-sjp

\ . ' n t • ^^^^^ ®' original

there is no trace : -as is found m ©o^er- genitive in some

Lfttin stems.

famHias, etc. The genitive ending -i of
the -o-stems in Latin is probably the old locative
ending, vici thus corresponds either to oiK€t the
variant form of otKoi or to otKoi itself (§ 176).
-ae of the -a-stems may represent the older di-
syllabic -at still found in the poets (Bomdl, etc.),
which was formed on the analogy of the -l in the
-o-stems and may have begun with the masculines
in -a, scriba, etc.* Itucuriei, etc., of the -?-stems are
also analogical forms. The dative probably in-
fluenced both -ae and -ei.

The suflBx -T09 in Greek -n-stems is not

^ Brugm. Orundr. ii. §§ 231-2.

^ The form in -e]f- is not required by any language ; -ojf- will
explain all the forms which occur.

' The Attic irbXcta^ (from T6X170S) seems formed on the analogy
of t6Xi7(, the dat. (locative) ; see § 313, n. 2. It is also possible to
explain the poetic ir6X6os and the Ionic ^curiKios as later coin-
ages with the 'OS of other stems as suffix.

* Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 229. Leo (Plaviinische Forschunffen, p.
312) shows that while dat. sing, and nom. pi. in -a«, and also prae
and quae, frequently suffer synaloepha, the gen. sing, in -ae very
rarely does so.

278 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS § 309 —

original. Many explanations of this suffix have been
oflTered. The best seems to be that -T09
in ovofjLa-To^ instead of ovofivo^ is

taken from the adverbial -T09 in ix-ro^, iv-ro^}

310. y. As already mentioned, the only stems

which have a separate form for the
aemnte fonn ablative are the -0-stems, where the

endmg is -a preceded by some vowel.
This form seems to have been borrowed from
the pronominal declension. Greek has lost the
ablative in the -o-stems, the genitive in them as in
others discharging ablatival functions.* In Latin
is oonfviBed in ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ '^ ^^ ^^® ablative,
luSraente?* i^d which took placc in the second century
locative. g (j^ Yed to a confusion between the

ablative and the instrumental. At a period pre-
ceding the separation of the Italic dialects from one
another the -d of the ablative had been extended to
other stems ; hence the old Latin praidad " from
booty," airid " from copper," etc. The other ablative
forms patre, homine, pede, etc., are not genuine abla-
tives, but either locative or instrumental forms (see
under vii. and viii.).

311. vi The original dative ended in -a^.
Dative iB con- This suffix is retained in the Greek
S!!^Jm8'!lri?h infinitive forms Bofiev-at, Bovvat (SoFiv-
locative. ^j^ g^ . elsewhere consonant stems, -i-

^ Masc. stems in a : Dor. *Arpe£dao, Ion. IliyXiytddew, add -o on the
analogy of the -o-stems. The forms TXavlaFo (Corcyra), Uoffid-
SaFo (Qela) have P only as a glide between a and the close sound
of 0 (Buck, Class, JUv. xi. pp. 190-1, 307).

* Solmsen {Rh, Mus. 11. p. 803) shows that FoLkw in the Labyad
I user, at Delphi (App. p. 547) is an old abl., the gen. ending in -ou.

— §313 ABLATIVE, DATIVE, LOCATIVE 279

and -u- stems, and root words in Greek have re-
placed the dative by the locative, Trarip't, Trocfiivi,
OdipaK'i, 'rroKe-c, lj(0V'-t, iroS-i, etc. In the -o- and
-a- stems the suflBx is contracted with the vowel of
the stem : otK<p, Tifijj, Oea, In Latin the suflBx is
regular throughout : patr-l (in older Latin occasion-
ally -ei), fiomin-ly aiidac-l, ped-l ; vied (§ 181, 3),
older Numasioif j)oploe {=p(>jmlo), deae (cp. Matuta
on inscriptions with vico\ ov-l, manu-l (for ^marwyrai,
§ 174).

312. vii. The original locative had two forms,
according as the ending -i was or was

° ° Locative with

not added to the stem. The stem, and without

.- _ _ , . - suffix.

if graded, appeared m a strong form.
The sufBxless form was probably not locative from
the beginning, but in time was thus specialised.
In Greek and Latin there are but few traces of
the suffixless locative. Bofiev, the Homeric infini-
tive, is an example from a -men stem (§ 359);
it seems probable that the type ^ipeiv (if =
^^epeaev) is also a locative ; ali^ is an example
from an -s-stem {alF-h, cp. Lat. aev-om) of which
aUi ( = *alF'€(r'i) seems the locative with the -t-
suffix.^ In Xeyea-'Oac the same locative has been
traced (§ 280). Latin presents even fewer
examples. The preposition penes from the same
stem as the substantive penus stands alone,
unless legtS'Sem, etc. (§ 280), form a parallel to

313. The locative in the Greek consonant, -i-

* This is doubtful on account of the accent ; *ai^isi ought to
become *a/6( in Greek. Moulton would explain as loc. of *ai^<i-m.

280 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS % 313

and -u- stems, has taken the place of the dative
(see under vi.). In the -o-stems it is

Extension of

the use of the doubtful whether the -ei- and -oi- forms

locative in Gk. ; « , , .

of the locative are coeval or whether
the -ei-fonns are the earlier. The former hypothesis
is more probable. The -ei-forms in Greek are very
rare ; in a noun stem, oXic^i is the only form found
in the literature. Otherwise the locatives are of
the type represented by oXkoi^ ^laOfioi, etc. Cp.
also HvXoiy^V^ " ^^^^^ ^^ Pylos," parallel to which
is &7ffiaiy€P'q^ ^ " born at Thebes." Elsewhere the
forms of the locative of -a-stems in Greek have
been absorbed in the dative. In -t-stems, -t was
added to a stem form in -iy, or -i^; hence the
Homeric iroXi^i and, with the usual metathesis of
quantity, irroXei', TroXec is probably the same in
origin as irroXel but contracted to a disyllable.
The -w-stems are similar : fiaaiXfjF't, iJSet (Homer),

^ In tragedy this form has generally been emended by editors
into OrfpayetrffSf an emendation which destroys an interesting
historical record. In Homer, after the destruction of the acropolis
by the Epigoni, the town is " Lower Thebes," 'Tto^/9cu {11, ii.
505), and Oi/i^ri is certainly the original form [II, iv. 378) of which
8^j3(u is the locative, this locative being later treated as a
nominative plural. The same is probably true of ^AOijyeu and other
plural names of towns. The same explanation has been given of
German names such as Sachsen, Xanten.

' So Wackernagel [Ferm, Beitr, p. 54 n.), who points to the
Cyprian forms rrdXiFiy etc., and the Aryan locatives in -du from
-t-stems as representing an original Indo-G. loc. in -iy, from i-stems.
To this loc. the -i-suffix of other stems was added ; rSXrii would
then represent *iroXijf-t. Brugmann [OruTidr, ii. § 260, cp. i.*
pp. 203, 882 fif.) postulates a stem in ^ or e. In any case, the
Aryan -u and the Gk. -F- can hardly represent an original element
in an -i-stem, but rather an analogical addition.

§314 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 281

Attic iJSet. In Latin wt, dtae (gen.), luxuriei are
locative in form ; for the meaning com-

f . -r* mi "Li • • in Latin.

pare domi, Icomae. The ablative m
other stems either is locative, or arises from a con-
fusion of locative and instrumental. In the former
case patre, homine, genere, pede, etc., represent older
forms ending in -i (§ 165), in the latter also forms
containing the instrumental ending (see viiL).
manu may represent an earlier ^manoj^-e, or a sufi&x-
less loc, or an instrumental.

3 1 4. viii. The suflBxes of the instrumental were
(1) either -e or -a,^ and (2) -hhi.

(1) In both Greek and Latin the instrumental
of the first type has ceased to be a two suffixes of
separate case. In Greek its functions *°"t™°»«>^*«i-
have been taken over by the dative, in Latin by the
ablative. Those who hold that -a was the instru-
mental suffix find it in such adverbial forms as fjLerd,
TTeSa, oifia, irapd, FeKa (in Ivcko), iva, Latin aere,
pede, etc.

(2) The suffix -bhi appears in Greek as -<^t.
But when the instrumental ceased to be a separate
case in Greek, the usages of the suffix were extended
so far that -^i forms are found in the ablatival

^ This ia a vexed question. Schmidt contends that the suffix
was •«, Brugmann that it was -a, but with some hesitation (op.
Oriech, Gramm.^ § 263). Recently Hirt has contended {I.F, i. pp.
13 ff.) that the -a-forms in Greek really represent an instrumental
suffix -771 (-rp,). The principal reason for holding -a to be the
instrumental suffix is that Lat. inde corresponds to iyOa, and
that therefore pede corresponds to Tcdd, But (1) the equation
is not certain ; inde may just as well be ip0€'{»)f a better equation
in respect of meaning : for absence of -v, cp. vp6a6€. (2) Original
*pedi would undoubtedly be represented hy pede in Latin.

282 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS § 314

meaning of the genitive, the instrumental and
locative meanings of the dative, rarely in Homer
as true dative or genitive, and once at least (in
Alcman) as a vocative. The number of forms
found is not very large. The form is used in-
differently for either singular or plural, and is
sometimes appended not to a stem but to a case
form; e.g. 'Ep€/8€i;<r-<^ti/ {Horn, Hymn to Demeter,
349).

B. Dual

315. Even in those cases (Nom., Ace, and Voc)
Dual forma for ^^^ which scvcral languages show forms
nom.. voc.acc g^^g ]^^^^ ^ ^^^ Original, it is difficult

to decide what or how many were the original

suffixes. Except in diw and amho, the dual has

disappeared in Latin (§ 297). For the

with gender. ^^-. , . . . .

masculme and fenunme m consonant-
stems and root words, Greek shows -€ as the suffix,
7raTip'€, Kvv'€, /36-e, etc. In -0-, -%-, -l- (-t^-), and
'U' stems, Brugmann * regards the lengthening of the
stem vowel as the original form for the masculine
and feminine, there being in the -o-stems, however,
another original form in oj^. For the -a-stems he
postulates -aj as the original form of the ending in
the dual nominative and finds it in the forms rt/iai,
equ(u, etc., employed by Greek and Latin as the
nominative of the plural. The Greek dual forms
ri,fid, etc., are then analogical formations after the
-o-stems. It seems on the whole simpler to follow
Meringer in regarding the forms in -Ou and -5 as

1 Qrundr, u. §§ 284 ff.

§ 317 THE CASE FORMS OF THE DUAL 283

phonetic variants (§181 n.) and to treat the nom.
of the dual as a collective form identical with the
singular Oj^stems.*

For the neuter the suffix for all stems is said to
have contained -^ or -f, the two forms

Without gender.

possibly representing different grades.
But in Greek and Latin, this suffix is found only
in el-Koa-Ly Fei-KaT-iy m-gint-l, the neuter forms
having elsewhere the same suffix as the masculine
and feminine, a fact which would rather lead us to
suppose that all genders of the dual had originally
the same suffix. If the form is originally a
singular collective, this is all the more probable.

316. The forms for the oblique cases of the
dual vary so much from one language

, , , . % r Oblique cases.

to another, and the restoration of the
original forms is consequently so difficult, that the
question cannot be discussed in detail here. The
Greek forms Xmrouv (iWoti/), etc., seem only the
correct phonetic representatives of the old locative
plural (^eki^-i)? The consonant stems (ttoS-oZi/,
7raT€p-otv, etc.) have borrowed the suffix from the
-o-stems.

C. Plural

317. i., ii. (a) Nominative and vocative, mas-
culine and feminine. There is no separate form

' Meringer, BB. xvi. p. 228 note. Brngmann's explanation
of equae (maintained anew Orundr. i.^ p. 228, n. 2) is untenable,
for in Latin -a} when unaccented becomes -i.

* See, however, § 822.

284 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS % 317 —

for the vocative in the plural, the form for the
nominative being used wherever the

Snfflz for nom. ...

and voc inasc. vocativo IS required. The original suffix

and fenu . _ J^ . , . . . ^

IS -es. In Latin this ending appears
as -^s, the lengthening being borrowed from the
-i-stems where the stem suffix in its strong form
-q[- coalesced with -« into -Is. Hence Idg. *(?|^'-cs
becomes in Latin ovls} On this analogy are formed
pcUr-es, kamin-es, andac-Ss, ped-^^ etc., as compared
with 7rarip'€^, irotfiiv-e^, BtopaK-e^, 7roS-€9, etc.
Lat. munu-s apparently arises by syncope from
mano^-e8 (§ 228), cp. fjieU — fiUF^e^. Greek and
Latin have both diverged from the original type in
incand^. making the nouL plural of -o- and -a-
Btems. stems end in -t, oIko-i vio-l; rifuiL,
turbae. In the -o-stems, the suffix is borrowed
by analogy from the pronoun; Idg. *^oj y4)^'0$
( = iJ + es) becomes in primitive Greek rol FoIkoi,
and similarly in Latin is-toi vicai, whence later is-ti
vicL In the -a-stems, -ai (ti/uil, turbae for earlier
turbai) is rather a new form on the analogy of the
-oi-forms of the -o-stems than, as Brugmann holds,
the original nominative of the dual (§ 315). The
change to these -t-forms must have taken place in
Latin and Greek independently, for Latin alone of
the Italic dialects has made the change, the others
preserving forms which are the lineal descendants
of the original ^- + e5 (-0$) and -a + -es {-as), Latin

^ The Greek dm is not original ; we should have had *6€is=
*6F€L-€t. Brugmann explains the by form in -is in Latin as the
old accusative form of the -t-steons *0Sft-7M ovis {Grundr, iL § 317).
The ace. forms pedes, etc., may also have influenced the nom.

%Z\S NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE PLURAL 285

inscriptional forms in -s from -o- stems such as
magistreis are later analogical formations.

i., ii. (6) Nominative and vocative neuter. The
suffix was probably originally -9, whence

^ n -r^ . .1 . . Saffl* fOT nom.

in Greek -a. But there is reason to and voc. masc.
believe that this suffix was not attached
to all stems. The neuter plural of the -o- stems,
as already pointed out, was a feminine collective
form (§ 298). Consonant stems, at least those in
'U' and -r-, seem to have made a plural from the
singular form by lengthening the stem vowel; of
this ripfuov Lat. termo by the side of rip-fia
( = *-mn) Lat. ter-men is possibly a surviving trace.
Stems in -i and -u seem to have made the neuter
plural in -l and -U. Of this type Lat. trl-ginta
alone survives in the classical languages. Whether
this 'l was a strengthening like -on beside -n in the
nasal stems or was a contraction of -z + a is un-
certain.

Analogy has largely affected these neuter forms.
In Greek the -a ( = -?) of consonant stems has
replaced -a in the -o- stems; hence fiAy-a for
original ^yttg-d. In Latin, on the other

u J - V^^v 4. -J Effect of analogy.

hand, -a of the -o-stems was earned on

to all other steins, as is shown by the quantity in

early Latin. In the classical period, final -a was

universally shortened and hence jiig-d, nomin-d,

camU'd,

318. iii The accusative plural masc. and fem.
of all stems probably ended in a nasal suuix of accnsa-
followed by -s. The old view was that **^' p^"™^*
the ending was -ms, $ being a mark of the plural

286 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS § 318

added to the form for the accusative singular;
Brugmann now holds ^ that the Letto- Slavonic
forms compel us to assume -n^ as the original suffix
except in -a-stems in which the original accusative
like the original nominative plural ended in -ds.
It seems, however, more probable that the -d-stems
had also originally -t^s as the suffix and that the
Skt. forms, on which the necessity for excepting
the -d- stems mainly turns, are a new formation
within the Aryan branch, being in reality only the
nom. form used for the accusative. The nasal of
the suffix was either sonant or consonant according
to the nature of the sound preceding: *7raT€/>-j/9
but f ot/c-0-1/9. Bva-fj^veh does not represent *Sucr-
fieveav^, which ought to become hvafuvea^ and
then *Sva'fjisPTJ^, but is the nom. form used for
the accusative. Original -dns would have become
in both Greek and Latin -dns, whence ti/jA^, turbos
(§ 227). For the short forms of the accusative
plural in Greek from -0- and -d- stems compare
§248.

319. iv. The original suffix of the genitive

plural seems to have been *-57n. This

ve p ura ^^ ^^^ ^^^ _^^ stcms Contracted with the

stem vowel into *-5m (Greek -mv, Lat -urn). The
genitive plural of the -d- stems would have been
affected by pro- phonctically the same as that of the -o-
^^^^' stems; Oe&v might represent either
*0€O'O}v or *^€a-G)i'. For the -d- stems a new
genitive plural has been formed in both Greek and
Latin on the analogy of the pronominal adjective.

1 Ghrundr, ii. § 186.

— §322 ACCUSATIVE, GENITIVE, DATIVE 287

From the earlier ^rdatov 0€&v Lat. *is4dsum deum
come TttQ)!/ Oedcov (Homeric), is-tarum dearum. As
the masculine forms in -a in Latin are not
proethnic, caelicolum, etc., are more probably analogi-
cal than original. The Latin -o- stems follow for
the most part the -a-stems and make -orum in the
genitive plural ; hence vicorum but FoUtov,

320. V. In Greek, the genitive of the plural,
like the genitive singular, performs the

® & ' r Ablative plural.

functions of the ablative. Latin follows

the original language in keeping one form in the

plural for ablative and dative.

321. vi. The reconstruction of this original
form for dative and ablative is diflBcult.

. . ^ , _ . Dative plural.

It IS often given as ^-hhyos, but Latm
-bus could hardly represent this original form (§197).
Greek has entirely lost the form, using original suffix
instead of it the locative in -o-t or the ^^^^*'^^-
instrumental forms in -0*9, etc., for which see viii.
below. Latin also uses these instrumental forms in
the -o-stems and generally in the -a-stems except
where ambiguity would arise ; hence eqttabvs, dealms,
JiliaJms, etc., because of the masculine forms equis,
deis, filiis. But cdis, pennis, mensis, etc., where there
is no ambiguity.

322. viL The locative seems to have originally
ended in -s, to which were frequently pomwof
added post-positions of doubtful mean- io<»«ve suffix.
ing -i and -u. In the Aryan and Letto-Slavonic
languages, -u is generally added ; in Greek and
apparently in Latin, the sufl&x was -i, which may
have been borrowed from the loc. sing. Some

288 HISTORY OF THE PLURAL FORMS § 322 —

authorities, however, regard fjLCTa^v and Lat mox,
Theories on which they identify with Skt. mak^, as
Greek locauve. surviving remnants of the -u suffix.
Others treat the Greek suffix as representing -sj^ + i
{'(tFi, -a-t) and would thus account for the retention
of -a- in vowel stems, nrTroto-t, oiKoiat, ^AOijvfja't,
etc. But medial -aF- disappears in Greek (§ 201).
There are also other possibilities. If -i was a mov-
able post-position which did not become an integral
part of the locative form till after the period when
-<r- between vowels disappeared in Greek, the reten-
tion of -0-- is satisfactorily accounted for. Another
explanation is that the -a- in iTrrroiai, etc., is restored
. on the analogy of consonant stems if>vka^i, etc. It
seems on the whole most probable that -t remained
movable till a comparatively late period, and that
thus -9 being treated as final was retained. But
if so, the explanation offered of the dual forms in
'ouv (§ 316) must be given up.

In Greek and Latin, traces of the suffixless
locative plural are rare and doubtful.

Sufflxlesa locative, t #^ i w • i *

In Greek olKot^ might represent the
locative without -t, but as the form phonetically
represents also the instrumental form equivalent
to the original *'dis, this assumption is hardly
necessary, more especially as the uses of locative
and instrumental are confused in the singular, -ai
appears in all stems : irarpd-ai, Troifie-ai (where
e has come from the other cases instead of the
phonetically correct ^irotfut-ai (a = n); cp. ^paaL
in Pindar, the phonetically correct form for Attic
<f>p€aC), Owpa^t, eirea-a-t (Homer), oBovai ( = ^oSovr-

— §323 LOCATIVE AND INSTRUMENTAL 289

(Tiy an analogical form instead of the weak form
*oSa<rt with -n-} cp. oZaH^y nroa-ai (Homer) by
assimilation from *7roS- + -<re, iroU-ai (Ionic)
Ixdv-ai. Attic TToXeai cannot be a phonetically
correct form, whether the stem be in -i- or -ej-, but
must have followed the analogy of other plural
cases. The forms in Tragedy from -a-stems, Oeaitn,
etc., are formed on the analogy of -otai in the
-o-stems, which were affected by the pronouns
(§ 326, vi.). The regular locative forms Ovpaai,
^A0i]vrj<n, etc., cease about 420 b.c. to be real cases
and are retained only as adverbs.

The Latin forms cited from inscriptions for the
locative of -o- and -a- stems — deivos (masc.) and
devas (fem.)^ — are possibly to be explained other-
wise.

323. viii. (a) The instrumental suflSx in all
except -o-stems seems to have origin- instrumental
ally ended in -bhis. Of this suffix p^"™^-
such Greek forms as XiKpt-^i^y afi-^l^ may be
surviving traces, but it is equally possible to
explain the final -9 otherwise; cp. e/c, ef ; x^/)t,
X^pl'^ (§247). In Latin the suffix has disappeared.

viii. (6) In the -o-stems instrumental forms
ended in ^-oj^, whence in Greek -0*9, in Latin -Is
(§ 181, 3). It is probable that -djfi represents

^ Convereely i;i<i<ri with a after Tarpdai and other nouns of
relationship.

' deivos is cited from the Dvenos inscription found in Rome in
1880, but the explanation cannot be accepted till there is more
agreement as to the meaning among the interpreters ; devas occurs
in the short inscription C.LL, vol. i. No. 814, Devas Comiscas
Sacrvm,

U

290 HISTORY OF THE CASE FORMS § 323 —

-0 + ai-s. Consequent on the confusion of meaning
and the similarity of form, the Greek instrumental
in -019 and the locative in -oiai, came to be used
indifiFerendy in the Attic poets according to the
exigencies of the metre. From the middle of the
fifth century B.c. onwards, -019 alone was used in
prose. The fonns in -0^9, Latin -is, from -a-stems,
are a new formation on the analogy of forms from
-o-stems. By the end of the fifth century B.C.,
the forms in -at9 have entirely ousted on Attic
inscriptions the genuine and spurious locative
forms in -aai,^ -lyo"*, and -tun, 'jjai.

XTX. Pronominal Declension

1. Pronouns which distinguish gender.

324. Under this heading are included demon-
strative, relative, and interrogative pronouns. The
relative is certainly a comparatively late specialisa-
tion of a demonstrative form, or (as in Latin) of an
interrogative. The same form serves for both
interrogative and indefinite uses. As an interroga-
tive it is accented, as an indefinite pronoun it is
unaccented. Pronouns, like nouns, have developed
differently in different languages, and Greek and
Latin draw some of their commonest pronouns from
different stems.

325. The chief stems which appear in Greek
and Latin are :

i. Indo-G. *50- *sa- : preserved in the Greek

— § 326 PRONOMINAL STEM FORMS 291

nom. sing, of the article o, 17, and possibly in the
Latin i-p-se} ip-sa. Oblique fonns, mainly accusa-
tives, are found in old Latin : sum, sam, sos, sas.
The stem in the original language seems to have
been confined to the nom. sing. masc. and fern.
Eng. she is of the same origin.

ii Indo-G. *^o-, *^a-, Hod : found in Greek to
( = ^tod, Eng. tluit) and in all cases of the article
except the nom. masa and fem. sing. For Attic
o/, ai in the plural, other dialects have rot, raL
In Latin, the stem is found in is-te, is-ta, is-tud, and
in an old particle quoted by Quintilian^ topper
( = *tod'per) " straightway." o5to9 is a combination
of the two stems *so- and *^o- with the particle u
often found in other combinations, especially in
Skt. (*S0'U-t0'S). airro^ is not yet satisfactorily
explained.^ To these two stems belong also ohe
and probably o helva which has been wrongly
divided (cp. § 237), though none of the many
explanations of the form is altogether satisfactory.

iii. Indo-G. *6j-, *i- : Old Greek ace. l-v. Old
Latin i-m from a stem whose nom. is in the weak
grade i-s, while the other cases are in the strong
grade «j-: Lat. eius, etc. (§ 326, ii.). The Homeric

^ For ^ipso. For -e := unaccented -o compare in the passive
imperative 2e^ere=X^7eo (for *X^7e<ro). Some authorities question
the change of final 0 to e and connect either -pse with the Syracusan
yffk (Kretschmer) or -se with Gothic -«i (Hirt). In any case, the
form probahly arises hy dissimilation from *iS'ps€ ; cp. eampse, etc.

« Ingt, Grot, i. 6, 40.

' Brugmann (Orwndr, i.^ p. 842), following Flenshurg and
Wackemagel, connects with Skt aau- ''life," Zend af»hu- "life,
self."

292 PRONOMINAL STEM FORMS % 326 —

and poetic fonns /ui/, viv are explained ^ as
*<r/i' + ty and ^vF-iv^ where <r/i- is the particle
discussed in § 326, iv., and vF- is the enclitic vv,

iv. From the same or a similar stem, Indo-6.
*jo- (*«j(o-), comes the Greek relative 09 ( = *jos).
The weak form is probably found in X-va (§ 342)
for *f-i;a, and possibly in the nom. X quoted by
Apollonius, Be pron. p. 330, from Sophocles'
Oefunnaus (Ft. 418, Dindorf).

V. Indo-G. *A»-, *ia- : Greek 6-/cet, a locative
adverb fix)m which e-^cet-i/o? is derived ; Latin ce in
ce-do " give here," ec-ce, hi-c, etc. From a cognate
stem *A?i- (cp. *2'^a-, *2J^i- below) come Latin ci-s,
ci-tra, and possibly -ki in ou-#ct, 7roXXa-«t-9,* etc.
English has words with both the significations
found in Greek and Latin : hi-m, hi-ther,

VL Indo-G. *^0', ^^d-y *^i- : Greek irov,
irol, iro-Oev, interrogative adverbs, Lat. gruod (cp.
Eng. what irohairo^) : rt?, rt, Lat. quis^ quid.
The interrogative forms in Attic, rov, tcS, represent
the Homeric reo ( = '^^e'SJp) and retp, the latter being
an analogical form. The same stem is also used for
the indefinite pronoun, the difierence being that when
the pronoun is used interrogatively it has the principal
accent, while when used indefinitely it passes on the
accent to the word preceding : et-rt?, oc-ti^ : si-quis,
etc. The Latin relative qui represents the ^o-stem
with a suflixed -i : '^quo-i (cp. hie below).

^ By Thwnb in Fleckeisen's JahrbUcher for 1887, pp. 641 ff.
But it is yeiy doubtful whether an enclitic particle could thus be
combined with a pronoun (cp. Wackemagel, I.F. i. p. 333).

^ Brugmann, Gfrundr. ii. § 409.

— § 326 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION 293

vii The Latin Mc (Old Lat Aic) comes from a
stem ho- (cp. ?iO'die). The history of the masc.
form is not clear.^ The fem. haec represents
^hai + ce, i being a deictic particle seen also in
(pme. The neuter *hod has only the particle -ce
added; *Aod+ce becoming hoc. The Indo-G. form
of the Latin Ao-, hd- is not certainly known.

viii. Brugmann ^ finds an original stem *o-, *a-,
in Greek €-t "if" (a locative case), and the mere
stem in i-Kel, Lat. e-quidem ; possibly also in the
augment e-^epov, etc. (§ 445).

326. The pronominal declension differs in several
respects from the declension of the noun. On the
points of difference alone is it necessary to dwell
here. The points of difference illustrated by Greek
and Latin are :

i Difference in nominative formation.

(a) Some masculine -o-fortias in the nom. singular
appear without final -s: Indo-G. *50, Gk. o, Latin
ip'Se (§325, L). Others which have no final -s have
-i sufl&xed : Latin qui, hi-c,

(b) The neuter singular forms its nominative in
'd: TO (for *tod), Lat. is4ud; aXkoB- ^ive variations
a7r^9, Lat. aliud ; iroB-airS^, Lat. quod; SSSsioST uTe

Tt (for *^id), Lat. quid. nom.ofpronouns.

(c) In Greek the feminine dual rai is replaced

^ According to Lindsay (Z.Z. p. 433) hie represents an older
M'Cy i arising through the unaccented nature of the word ; for the
same reason Skutsch {BB, xxL p. 85) sees in it *ho-ce, and explains
hie as hie+c{e) with double -ce, Lindsay gives the root as *ghO',
Streitberg ( Urg. Oram, p. 267) as *k?iO'f conjecturing that 0. Icel.
hann *'he," ?ion "she," are connected.

2 Grundr, ii. § 409.

294 HISTORY OF THE PRONOMINAL % 326

by the masculine tc& ; cp. Sua), Lat. dvjo of all genders
(see also § 315).

(rf) The plural is fonned by the addition of -t to
the stem, a characteristic borrowed in both languages
by the nominal -o- and -a- stems (§ 317).

(e) The neuter plural makes the form for nom.
and ace. in -ay. Lat. qwu ( = *3Tfa + i), hat'C. In
Greek this formation is lost except perhaps in Kal
(§ 342 n.).

ii The genitive singular ^tO'SJfi, etc., Gk. roio, etc.,
was probably the origin of the special genitive form
in the nominal -o-stems. A suflSx ^-sjfis must be
postulated as the original form for the feminine
genitive singular in so many languages that it must
go back to the Indo-Germanic period. But it seems
Ffiin.g«n.a nevertheless an obvious amalgamation
mixed form, ^f ^^iQ masculiuc and neuter -sio suffix
with 'OS of a-stems in the noun. Whether there was
originally only one form for all three genders, or
whether the type -a*, as in the noun, was earlier,
cannot at present be determined.^ Greek follows
the noun declension in the fem. genitive.

The genitive forms in Latiu, i^ius, cuitis, eiiis,

etc., have given rise to much discussion, istins,

Latin gen. in HH^f^ sccm to havc sprung from a locative

"*'"• istl, nil (cp. isti'C, Uli'C) with the ending
-05, "US of the noun genitive affixed. These locatives
may have ended in either -oj or -«j (§ 313). cuivs
(older quoius) may be explained in the same way.
From the accented form quoi, which, owing to its

^ Bnigmann, Orundr. ii. § 420. A different explanation is
given by Hirt {I.F. ii. pp. 180 ff.).

§ 326 FORMS FOR GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE 295

accent, retained its original vocalism, a genitive was
made by aflSxing -os, -us as in the other words
mentioned. In the other members of the series
these old locatives remained as datives, but from
qvA& a new dative to quoitts was made ^quoii or
*qvr0iei on the analogy of illiits, Uli, etc. This form
became first qtwi and then cui}

iii. The separate form of the genitive in nominal
-o-stems is with much probability re- Pronominal
ferred to pronominal influence. To the "Watives.
same influence may be attributed the separate
ablative forms -dd, -id in the same stems (Lat.
egudd, fadllumid). The suffix -Oev is frequent in
all pronominal stems in Greek. Like -to^ Lat. -tm
in iv'To^, in-tus, -Oev is properly an adverbial sufl&x
which has become so firmly incorporated with the
paradigm of the pronoun that the forms aeOcVf etc.,
are used for the genitive. iro-dev and others
retain their adverbial signification. If the forms
rrfv&'0€, TovT&'0€, etc., found in Doric authors
are genuine, the suffix -Oe must have been added to
the original ablative forms *ti7i/g), ^rovTco for ^ttjvcjS,
*ToirrcoS, which survive as the adverbs rrjv&y Tovr&.

iv. In forms for the ablative, dative, and locative,

^ J. H. Kirklandf Class. Rev. vi. 433. This explanation seema
slightly simpler than Brugmann's {Orundr. ii. § 419), which
assumes a combination of an interrogative with a demonstrative
stem: quoiei^quo an adverbial case form + eei (from is). Such
combinations must, however, be admitted for other Italic dialects.
Another but still less probable explanation is that of Buck,
VoccUitmua der oshischen Sprache, p. 151, who identifies quoiu-s
with Gk. iroio-s, and supposes the genitive and dative to arise from
a confusion in the use of the adjective, the value of which was
practically genitival.

296 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION § 326 —

a suffix -mv- ifl frequently found. This suffix is
Suffix m. In identified with Skt. s?7ia, which is also
pronouns, f^^^j ^ ^ separate particle. The loca-
tive ends in either -i or -m; cp. the personal pronouns
in Lesbian v/a/u or vfifitVy where -/a/a- represents -sni'
(§ 329). This -sni- suffix is also found, as Brug-
mann conjectures,^ in the dative (locative) form o-rifii,
( = ^Tt'O-fi-t) from Gortyn in Crete. In Latin, the
suffix appears in the strengthened forms mimet,
temet, ipsemet. Forms with -sm- are more widely
developed in Sanskrit

v. The pronoun had a separate instrumental
Pronominal ^rm iu -TMi, Still fouud in Greek i-va.
Instrumental, ^^^y adverbial forms from pronominal
stems are possibly old instrumentals in -m : ol-i-m,
istinc ( = ist'i-m + ce\ etc. On the analogy of
these forms, helped by old accusative forms like
partim, stcUim,^ others were made from stems of
many other kinds : gradatim, pedetentim, etc.

vi. The genitive plural of the pronoun ends in
Pronominal *'SOm, In the masculiuc and neuter
gen. pi. forms this was lost in both Greek and
Latin, but in Latin was restored later from the noun
forms after the suffix had been extended to them
(§ 319). This is proved by the fact that the
pronominal stem originally appeared in a diphthongal
form before the suffix : *tojrSdm (Skt. temm), whence

^ Grtindr, ii. § 423.

^ Cp. Delbriick {Orundriss, Syntax, i. § 255). It may, however,
be pointed out that these Latin forms may have exact Slavonic
parallels in Old Bulgarian instrumentals like /7^-^I-mI, final -l being
here, as frequently, lost in Latin.

— § 327 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 297

in classical Latin only ^is-turum not is-tarum
could be developed. The diphthongal form of the
stem arose from the union of -i, a mark .^ ^s mark of
of the plural (§ 326, i. d), with the p^^'™^
original stem, and seems to have been carried
through all the cases of the plural. The -oi- of the
locative plural in nouns (§ 322) may have been
derived from the pronominal forms: *^aj[si ek^si
being changed later into *^ojw ekjfojsi}

2. Personal Pronouns.

327. The personal pronouns — i.e. the forms to
express /, thou, we, you and the reflexive self, selves
— are an extremely old formation, in several respects
more primitive than any other part of the Indo-
Germanic declension. They do not distinguish
gender, and there are forms in the oblique cases
which have no clear case ending, ifii, Lat. me, etc.
The forms for the plural were originally inflected as
singulars, the stem for the plural in the originally no
pronouns of the first and second persons JSS^Jor piSSi
being different from that for the singular. ^®"-
But even in the singular of the pronoun of the first
person two entirely different stems have to be dis-
tinguished : €70), Lat. ego, Eng. / (0. Eng. Ic), is
a different stem from €-/a€, Lat. mi, Eng. me. As
in the noun, different grades of the stem appear
in different casea Case usages are not in all in-
stances clearly defined : e.g. the original form *moj,
Gk. /iot, Lat. ml, resembles a locative and is used

^ Cp. Brugmann, Orundr, ii. § 430.

298 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION § 327

in Sanskrit as a genitive, in Greek and Latin as a
dative.

328. A. i. The original form in the nominative
singular of the pronoun of the first per-

Nom. fonnB. . 1 , , . mi 1 •

son IS msA. to determine. The relation-
ship between 6k. ^c», Lat. ego, and Skt. ahAm, like
that between 6k. 76 and Skt. Aa, has not yet been
satisfactorily explained Some 6k. dialects have the
form eycoi/ which apparently shows the same ending
as Skt. ahdm. The nominative of the Indo-6. form
for thou was tu, tv is found in Doric 6reek : Attic
a-v cannot come phonetically from tv, but arises
from the ace. rFi} As in 6reek and Latin, the
reflexive had originally no nominative.

ii In the accusative the original forms seem to

have been *mi, ^ty^ (*^, and in the

reflexive *syX C^i), whence in 6reek fie

and i-fie (possibly from the influence of i-yd), ri

Attic <r€, I: Lat. mS, ti, si: Eng. me, thee.

iii. The genitive in 6reek is formed as in nominal
Genitive and '<>' stcms with -<rto, whencc Homeric€/i6«)

po8«eMlve forme. ( ^ ♦^^^.^,^)^ ^^]^ Attici flOV I Homeric

aeio, aeo, Attic aov : Homeric elo, &, Attic ov. The
emphatic forms in Attic ifiavTov, ifjLavT^, etc., come
by analogy from the ace. ifi avrov, etc., while acavrov
= a€(o) avTov? Such forms in Homer as reolo
" thine " can come only from the possessive adjective,

^ This form, disguised as rpi, is quoted by Hesjchius. Dialect
influence may also have been at work (cp. Wharton, Class, Rev.
vi. pp. 259 ff.).

' The Ionic corresponding forms itavrw, etc., start from iwvr^,
which is a fusion of ioi ai/r^ like uvrol for ol airol (Smvth, Ionic,
p. 451).

— § 328 THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 299

from which also the Latin forms mei, tui, sui can
alone be derived. As in the case of cuius and
cuium, there is a constant interchange between the
forms of the possessive adjective and of the pronoun
proper. The Doric forms ifiov^y T60O9, eov? are
monstrosities arising from a confusion with the
genitive suffix in -5 of noun stems.

iv. For the ablative Greek must use the genitive
forms, or those forms with an adverbial
suffix which, though originally ablatival,
do duty for either case (§ 326, iii.). In Latin, the
old forms midy ted, sid, when compared with the Skt.
mat, tvaty and Latin «&? " but " (if it really comes
from this stem), show a change of quantity. This
arises from a confusion with the accusative forms
m£, te, si, which are sometimes found with -d
appended.

v. In Greek ifiol (jwC), aoi, ol, which seem in
form to be original locatives, discharge the function
of datives.^ In Latin ml is not a contraction of
mihi, but the descendant of an original

A . A . ..11 Forms used In

form *mei or ^mm as m other languages, meaning of

several cases.

The forms miht, tibl, sihi are difficult.

The i- vowel in the root syllable may be explained

from their enclitic uses. The original

_ _ ^ - , 1.1 Dative forms.

Indo-G. form cannot be restored with
certainty, but that the forms are old is shown by
comparison with Skt. mdhya/jn) and tiibhya(m).
The nominal suffix, Gk. -<^a, has probably influenced
these forms, tibl, etc., with I final are perhaps due
to such forms as istl, etc.

' Another loc. form is found in i/i-ly, etc.

300 PRONOMINAL DECLENSION § 329

329. B. i. In the plural, the forms in Greek and
Latin are very different. Throughout

Different stems

for plural in the prououns of the first and second

Greek and Latin. * -iiy-^ii 1 /v»

persons plural, Greek shows the suffix
-sm- (§ 326, iv.). The nominative in Attic has
been influenced by the nominal declension. The
most primitive forms are the Lesbian a-y^yA
( = *ns-sm-«), v-/i/i6 ( = *jws-«w-«). In the stem-
syllable, the same form as the English us, ye can be
distinguished. The dual forms in Greek from the
first person : Homeric vSn, Attic vi>, v&iv {v^v), are
closely connected with Latin nds. vos is from the
same original stem as English we. The dual form
(a-<^) for the second person in Greek still awaits
explanation. -^© may be conjectured to be of the
same origin as -^o) in ay^to and English io4h
(O.E. ha), a- can hardly come from rF- here, and
the form is specially remarkable as compared with
the plural of the reflexive <r-^€, a-^iv, etc.^

ii. The ace. was originally like the nom. in Gk.

as well as in Latin. i7Ata9, vm^ are

Accusative. i-in • t-i r ^

analogical formations uke 97/16^9.
iii. Since the plural pronoun was originally in-
flected as a singular, the forms fiu&v,

Genitive forms. , ^ . \ ' . . " .

vfiojv, 0*90)1/, as the genitive appears m
Attic, must be a new formation, nostrum (nostri),
vostrum (vostri), like the singular forms (§ 328, iii),
come from the possessive adjective.

iv. The remaining cases are inextricably entangled
together, ^/iti/, vfiiv, found frequently also with I,

^ In ye the vowel has come from toe : cp. Goth, jus (Streitberg,
Urg, Gram. p. 265). With <r-0<i cp. Welsh chwi ( = *8-ues) "you."

§ 331 CASE FORMS OF THE PLURAL 301

are locatives like the Cretan o-Ti^fii, (§• 326, iv.).

V&bV iy^v) of the dual is also locative. Forms for other

In TiOUs, vdMs, apparently for *7idbhls, ***®**
*vdbhl$, we can recognise the same sufiBx as in the
singular tibi, sibi}

Possessive Adjectives.

330. From the stems of ifie me : rFi te : e se, are
formed the pronominal adjectives : Homeric €/i09,
ref 09, ef 09 : meus, tuus ( = *te^o-8, Old Latin tovos),
suus ( = *sc2^-s, Old Latin sovos). Attic 0-09 is from
*tFo'<;, From the plural forms, Attic by means of
the suffix 'Tcpo- makes 'qfUrepo-^f vfierepo-^,
a^erepO'^. Homer has also vfoirepo^ and a^tolrepo^.
With the same suffix Latin makes noster and vaster
(later vester). Other Greek dialects, e.g. Lesbian,
had also forms made directly from the stem of the
pronoun : afifu)-^, vfifio-^, a<f>6'^.

XX. Uses of the Oases

331. The nominative was not originally the case
of the subject, for the personal endings i, T^e nomina-
of the verb expressed vaguely the sub- **^®'
ject of the sentence : if>drfiL (Attic ^i7-/it) " say I,"
(fyd-^l (Attic if>rf'aC), Lat. inqui-t " says he." But

^ Like many other pronominal forms, rUibis^ vfitas have been
modified probably within Latin itself. A form uus foand in Paelig-
nian (Conway, LD, 216. 7) seems to be a dative. If so it repre-
sents *vof8 for *vdfis, thns showing that the i of the second syllable
was short.

302 THE USES OF THE CASES § 331 —

in many usages greater precision was necessary, and
a substantive or pronoun was added in apposition to
give the meaning that definiteness which was re-
quired. This substantive or pronoun is commonly
called the subject and the nominative is its case.
This apposition may, however, be expressed by other
cases, cp. Lat. dedecori est and modern English Ifs me.
332. The vocative, as akeady pointed out, is
properly no part of the sentence and is

li. The vocative. ^ ^ '^ ^ ^ , ^ , .

not a case. In Homer (and also m
Sanskrit) when a vocative and a nominative occur
together they are connected by a conjunction:
^ At pelZri, av ik irave, II, L 282.

When one invocation was followed by a second,
it seems to have been the rule from the earliest
period to put the second in the nominative: Zev
Trdrep, "^ISrjOev fieBicov, KuSiare, fJL^urre, | 'H€Xt0 9
0*, ^9 Train-' i<l>opa^ koI irdvr iiraKovet^. H, iii.
276.^ So also in Latin: cp. avdi luppiter, audi
pater patrate popvli Albani, avdi tu populus
Albanus. liv. L 24. 7.

The occurrence of the vocative in the predicate
arises by an analogical attraction. A genuine voca-
tive always appears in the sentence and causes the
attraction.

6\fit€, Kovpe, yipoto, Theocr. xvii. 66.
N'ec tremis Ausonias, Phoebe, fugate dapes?
Prop, iii 22. 30.

^ The order is sometimes reversed, yafippbs ifiM diywrip re,
Tl0(irO* 6ffo/i' drrt Key ttvuy Od. zix. 406. Some MSS. however read
$vydTifp. Cp. also & v6\is koX drjfjie, Aristoph. Knights^ 278.

^ With Horace's Maivii/M pater aeu lane libentitis audis {Sat,
ii. 6. 20), which is treated by some authorities as if a quoted word

— § 333 VOCA TIVE AND A CCUSA TIVE 303

333. " The accusative brought the noun into a
quite indefinite relation to the verb. The y,. ^he accuaa-
nature of the relation was determined by **^®-
the character of the verb and its dependent noun." ^
The accusative could, however, be used also with
adjectives and substantivea While it may be
difficult to trace historically the whole of its usages
from one original meaning, it seems simplest to
define the accusative as that case which answers the
question " How fax ? " ^

(1) The accusative with verbs of motion towards.
a, riepLTi avifirj fUyap ovpavov OvXvfiirov
T€. 7Z. L 497. In a mist went she up
great heaven and Olympus.
rogat quid veniam Cariam. Plautus, Cur-
cvlio, 339. He asks why I come to Caria.
h. 'lI<l>aia'Tov txave So/jlov 0€t*9 dfyyvpoire^cL
E, xviiL 369. To Hephaestus' home
came silver-footed Thetis.
Nunc domum propero. Plautus, Pcrsa, 272.
At present I'm hurrying home.
Compare with these usages of place the usage of
person.

c, fivffO'Trjpa^ a^LKero ila yvvaiK&v. Od.
xvi. 414. To the wooers came the fair
lady.

**Iane/* cp. Callimachus, Fr. 213 (Schneider) : dyrl 7A/) ixX-^ris
'IfAppa(T€ ILap6€plov, and Milton's direct imitation of the Latin
{Paradise Lost, iii. 1 ff.) : ** Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven
first bom | ... Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream."

1 Bmgmann, Or. Gr,^ 178, p. 208.

* Naturally, as the usages of the case develop, this simple test
becomes too vague.

304 THE USES OF THE CASES % 333

d. Vaguer usages are not common in Greek —
Toh^ Udvo) " to this I am come " is practically the
only construction. In Latin the construction most
similar is the accusative of an abstract substantive
which is called the supine — spectatum veniunt, etc. :
cp. Hamlet's Til go pray, i. v. 132.

Closely akin to the accusative with verbs of motion
towaids, are the accusatives of time and space.

(2) The accusative of time.

TcpirovTai fidxape^ Oeol Tjfiara irdvTd. Od.

vi. 46. The blessed gods take their

pleasure at all times.
annos multos filias meas cdavistis clam

me. Plant. PoenvluSy 1239. Many

years have you concealed my daughters

from me.

(3) The accusative of space.

MffptovT)^ Xeiirero Bovpo<: ipwrjv, H. xxiii.

529. M. was a spear's throw behind.
nomina insunt cub i turn longis litteris.

Plant. PoenvluSy 837. The names are in

letters a cubit long.

(4) The accusative of content.

This comprises the constructions known as (a)
the cognate, and (V) the quasi-cognate accusatives,
the latter being only an tmalogical extension of the
former. The cognate accusative expresses merely
the same idea as is contained in the verb, it being the
accusative of a substantive &om the same root. The
quasi-cognate accusative has the same eflfect, but
though verb and noun convey the same idea, they
are not formed from the same root.

§333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 306

a. fid^rjv fid^eo'dai.
pug nam pugnare,

b. fft)6t9 ofyaBop fiiov. Od. xv. 491. Thou

livest a good life.
ut profecto vivas aetatem miser. Plaut.
Amph. 1023. That you may indeed
live your time in wretchedness.
Cp. also —

k\v(o a iyo) fiefirfvor ov cfiLKpav voaov.
Aeschylus, P. F". 977. I hear that thou
art maddened with no small disease.
This construction is restricted within very narrow
limits in early Latin, but as time goes on, intransi-
tive verbs tend more and more to become transitive
(see below, (5)6), and in the Imperial period we find
such loose constructions as

grammaticiis non erubescit soloecismum, si
sciens facit. Seneca, Epp, 95. 8. The
scholar does not blush for a mistake in
grammar, if he makes it wittingly.
(5) Accusative with transitive verbs,
a. When the verb is changed to the passive this
accusative .becomes the nominative.

CTraivS) TOpBe tov avOptorrov.
hunc hominem laudo, I praise this
person.
In the passive —

ohe o avdpcoTTO^ eiraivelrai.
hie homo laudatur. This person is being
praised.
6. This construction is extended to verbs which
are intransitive.

306 THE USES OF THE CASES % 333

ireTTOvdev ola Kal ere koX irdvra^ /M€V€t.
Euripides, JV-a^. 651. He hath suffered
such things as wait thee and all men.
cives meum casum luctumque doluerunL
Cic. p, SesHo, 145. The citizens motlmed
my mischance and grief.
c. Two accusatives with one verb.^
These accusatives may be (a) in apposition, ()8)
of different types, (7) of the same type, but one ace.
of the person, the other of things.

a. Ha Lav vfivovai top Aarov^ yovov. Euri-
pides, ir,F. 687. Paean they praise,
Leto's son.
Ciceronem consulem creare. To make
Cicero Consul.
/8. rfjv fid'X^rjv tou9 fiapfidpov^ ivUrja-ap,
They defeated the foreigners in the fight.
Multa deos venerati sunt Caecina (op.
Cic. ad fam. vi. 7. 2). Many prayers
have they offered the gods.
7. 'qiovrj Tt9 yvvai^l fJurjBkv vyth ak\i]\a^
T^jiyecv. Eur. Phoen. 200. Women have
a certain pleasure in reviling one another.
Tribunvs me sententiam rogavit The
tribune asked me my opinion.
Sometimes a transitive verb and its accusative

^ There may be, of course, more complicated constructions where
one or more accusatives depend on another accusative. Cp.
Dominus me boves mercatvm Eretriam misit (Plant. Persa^ ii. 6. 21),
" My master sent me to Eretria to buy cattle." A multiplicity of
accusatives is a characteristic of Pindar's style : cp. Pylh, i 95 : rdy
Si TaijfHp x^^f^^V Kavrijpa vrfKia v6op | ix^P^ ^dXapiv iraWx^^ travrf.
ipdrii. Op. Nem. ix. 26, 01. xi. (x.), 28, etc.

§ 333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 307

together are equivalent to another verbal notion, and
govern a second accusative.

deol . . . 'IXtov <f>0opa^ . . . y^i](l>ov^ edevro
( = €i|ri706crai/To). Aesch. Agam. 815.
The gods voted the wreck of Troy.
hanc edictionem nisi animum advor-
' tetis omnes. Plaut. Pseud. 143. Un-
less 70U shall all attend to this notice.
(6) Accusative with substantives and adjectives.
The substantives which take this accusative are
mostly verbal. Originally all verbal substantives
had the same power as their verb of governing a
case. In Sanskrit a noun of the agent regularly
does so, giving such constructions as, if existing in
Latin, would be represented by the type dator
divitias. All noun forms called infinitives, supines,
and gerunds retain this power; other forms have,
for the most part, lost it.

a, iari ri^ XdOKparrj^ rh fierempa if>pov-

Tio'T'q^. Plato, ApoL 2 B. One Socrates

a student of the heavenly bodies.

iusta sum orator^ datus. Plautus, Amph.

Prol. 34. I am appointed ambassador

for justice.

In these constructions the noun of the agent with

a verb expresses the same meaning as the verb : %,

T. ft. (l>povTi^€i: ut iusta orarem ; compare hf piv

Trp&rd aoc pjopAf>i)v ej^o) ( = fi^/t^o/Liat), Eur. Or, 1069.

^ The only example till late Latin with a noun of the agent.
Groetz and Schoell read iuste in the new Teubner text. Leo,
howeyer, keeps iusta but compares ib. 106, which is not parallel.
More nearly so is gnarures vas volo esse hanc rem, Most. 100.

308 THE USES OF THE CASES § 333

Cp. also o T^ ovTi, Tvpavvo^ r^ ovri BovXo^ ra^
/leyiara^ danrela^ koI Sov7uia<:, Plato, Bep, 579 D.
The real tyrant is a real slave in respect of the
worst forms of flattery and slavery.

In Latin the construction remains more extended
than in Greek.

Qui reditus Romam. Cic. PhU. ii. 108.

What a return to Borne !
Quid tibi istum tactio est? Plaut. Cure.
626. What right have you to touch
him?
b. With verbal nouns ((rerunds).

oiariov rifv tvxv^* Eur. Ion, 1260. We
must bear our lot. (The construction is
not Homeric.)
poenas in morte timendum est Lucr. i.
111. We must fear punishments in
death.
Cp. vitdbundvs eastra, Livy, xxv. 13.
Avoiding the camp.
e. With adjectives.

arfodo^ fiorjv : ovofia kXvto^ (Homeric).

oi 0€ol oTfadoi elai iraaav dpenjv, Plato,

Zegg, 900 D. The gods are good in

respect of every wtue.

The "accusative of the part affected" is more

largely developed in Greek than elsewhere, and is

supposed to have come from Greek into Latin.

Hence ofifxara xal K€<l>a\rfv IkcXo^ Aa, //. ii 478,

is the model for such constructions as os umeros^ue

deo similiSy Virg. Aen, i. 589. There are no

examples of this construction in Latin before the

§ 333 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 309

Augustan age ; in the Flautine sentence qui manus
gravior siet {Pseud, 785), which is usually so taken,
qui is abl. and manus nom. sing.^

(7) Adverbial accusative.

The process by which accusative forms crystallise
into adverbs can be very clearly seen in the lustorical
development of most languages. In Greek it is very
marked, the number of adverbial accusatives, except
from adjectives and pronoims, being very limited in
the early period. Thus in Homer we find /Lt€7a
irdvTtov ^AfyyeioDV Kpariet : ''EiKTopa aa-irepx^^
xXoviayv €<l>€7r* a)«u9 'Aj^ tWctJ? ; and more rarely
neuter plurals, vfiet^ oifKiri xaXcL fiediere dovptSo^
aXfcij^ : rifirjv XeXoyj^afriv I a a deolaw. But the
adverbial accusatives from substantives, hLicriv, x^P*'^*
etc., do not occur in Homer, with the exception of
Trpo<f>aaiv (11. xix. 262), Se/ita? four times in the
phrase Bifui^ irvpb^; aWofiivoto (cp. § 283), and one
or two others.

There are three classes of adverbial accusatives :

(a) the neuter of adjectives both singular and plural,

(b) the accusative feminine of adjectives with a sub-
stantive understood, (c) the accusative singular of
substantives. The course of development is in many
cases not hard to trace, as (i.) from ace. of content,
o^ea k€k\7)^w, Ttfv rax^CTrfv iropeieaOai^ (where
oiov is easily supplied); (ii) from ace. of time,
irp&Tov, ivvrjfiap ; (iii.) from an ace. defining the

^ This was pointed out to me in 1895 by Dr. J. S. Beid, and
has been published independently since by Dr. Landgraf (^rcA./.
lot. Lex, X. p. 376).

^ Cp. English ke^ to the right.

310 THE USES OF THE CASES § 333

extent of action of the verb, eipo^, fieyedo^, Svofia,
XdpLv, Si/ci]v, etc. This includes the ace. in apposi-
tion to the sentence, a usage in which x^P''^ ^^ found in
iZ. XV. 744, xP'piv ''^KTopo^ orpvvavTo^, where xApiv
means "as the pleasure" (of Hector). The construc-
tion is frequent in later poetry. Cp. euSaifiovoirj^,
fiiadov^ TjUarwv Xoycov, Eur. El. 231. Mayst
thou be happy, as guerdon of thy gladsome words.
Usages of this kind are more frequent in late
than in early Latin, for many adverbial forms in
Plautus usually called accusatives are probably to be
explained otherwise.

a. ifm^pwino Setvov SepKOfUPOi, H, iii.

342. They marched with furious look.

(09 cuyirmol fieydXa /ckd^ovre fidx(ovTai.

n, xvi. 429. As vultures shrieking

loudly fight.

ego nil moror. Plant. PersUy v. i. 15. I

care nothing.
acerba tuens . . . serpens, Lucr. v. 33. A
snake glaring fiercely.
6. oS* oif fiaxpctv aireari,^ irXrja-iov Si aov.
Eur. Phoen, 906. He is not far off, but
near thee.
To this construction belong the Latin forms in
'fariam, bi-, tri-, qvudri- fariam. Otherwise it is
rare ; aeternum, supremum, and some others occur in
the poets.

' This is a very simple case, because €iSaifu>yoljfs=Tb eifSaifiovetp
{eCfdaifjLwlap) ^Mf. That the poet was thinking of a substantiye
is shown by the next verse, icotvj ilBufu tovto tf$v dfi4>oTy ^ccr,
where roDro=rd ct/dcu^orccF.

§ 334 SYNTAX OF THE ACCUSATIVE 311

c, BoDpeetv irapci tov irjiiov eXafie to ^((opLov*
Lysias, vii. 4. He got the place from
the people gratis.

For corresponding uses in Latin compare partim
and tenus (§ 57).

(8) Accusative with prepositions.

The usages with prepositions are more frequent
in the accusative than in any other case. This may
be partly owing to the vagueness of its meaning,
for prepositions which spring from older adverbs are
first used in those cases where the meaning of the
case by itself is too vague to express the precise in-
tention of the speaker.^ (See ^ 340 flf.)

334. The accusative in most of its relations is
closely connected with the verb ; the
genitive is similarly connected with the
noun. As far as its functions are concerned, the
genitive closely resembles an adjective. But they
are not of the same origin, the old belief that such
an adjectival stem as hri^ato- was identical with
the old genitive 8i]fioio being erroneous. There was,
however, to some extent confusion between genitival
and adjectival forms, cuius in Latin being also de-
clined as an adjective. Compare also the constant
interchange between the genitive of the personal
pronouns and the possessive adjectives.

When connected with verbs the genitive "ex-

^ The use of wf as a preposition in Greek is curious because it
is found only with the ace. of persons. It is explained by Ridge-
way {Journal of Philology, xvii. p. 113) as arising from «s "where "
originally used with a nom. : ^\d€y dts j8a<nXfi>j {itrrl). The verb
after u» was frequently omitted, hence the change to the ace, a
parallel to which can be found with yina ** where " in Skt.

312 THE USES OF THE CASES § 334

presses partial control by the verb of that which is
contained in the object, while the accusative ex-
presses complete control "^- aprov €<f>arf€ "he ate the
loaf," aprov 6^076 " he ate a slice."

(1) The possessive genitive includes many dif-
ferent usages which frequently can be exactly deter-
mined only from the context. Compare the following
constructions : —

'Haioiov €pya Horti Caesaris

iraph diva 0a\d(ra-rj^ paterfamilias
j KVLa^<: fiepo^ voti partem 1

[ Ato9 fiepo^i Apollinis partem J

T^9 Sv<o y€v6fi€a-0a, II. xxi. 89. Her's are

we twain.^

lam me Pompei totum esse sets. Cic. Fam, ii. 1 3. 2.

You know that I am all for Pompeius.

Similar constructions in Sanskrit seem to show

that the rare construction Kela-ai aa^ dX6j(ov

<r(l>a^€i<: (Eur. El. 123) "Thou liest slain of thy

spouse," is a true genitive arismg from the original

value of the participle as a noun. It must, however,

be remembered that if the only separate ablative

form, viz. in the -o-stems, is borrowed fh)m the

pronoun (§ 326, iii.), there is no criterion by wliich

* Orimm quoted by DelbrUck, S.F. iv. p. 89. In time this
distinction was (at least locally) obliterated. Op. in inscriptions of
Calymna apparently of the same period (fourth or third oentury
B.C.): Aaxc if>v\iLvKv8prj\€Lovs, Seifwp Jiiitrw (O.D.L No. 3572^n.),
but Aaxe ^uXas Kv^pn/iKfiwv^ ddfiov 'AAt^nrcT^r {ib. 8578). Simi-
larly Pindar, though generally using the ace. with fKaxw, has the
gen. in 01. xiv. 1, Mh. vii. 64, and Fragg. 75. 6, and 154. 4 (Bgk.).

^ This might be explained also as an ablative, but such con-
structions are found in Skt. with forms distinctly genitival (Del-
bruck, S.F. v. p. 153).

§334 ' SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 313

to distinguish genitive from ablative singular ex-
cept usage. This construction, like 7^9 3i5a) f^evofj^eada
above, lies within the debatable land between the
two cases.

(2) The partitive genitive is also a widely ex-
tended type.

huL. yvvaiK&v (Horn.). Fair amohg women.

Tuno Saturnia sancta dearum} Enn. Ann,

i. 72. Satuniian Juno holy among

goddesses.

ejfdiOTO^ Si fiQL ecrcrt BtOTp€(f>€<DV fiaatk'^oDv.

11, i. 176. Most hateful to me art thou of

the kings fostered by Zeus.

nicudme divom. Ennius,-4n7i. i. 71. Greatest

of Gods.
'Xpvaov ScKa raXavra. M, xix. 247. Ten

talents of gold.
hanc minam fero auri. Plant. Tttic. 900.

This mina of gold I bring.
BaiT ayaO^v Kpei&v t€ koI otvov '^Bwroroio,
Od, XV. 507. A goodly feast of flesh and
sweet wine.
cadum vini propino,^ Plant. Stichus, 425.
I toast you in a cask of wine.

^ This construction is, however, possibly an imitation of the
Greek.

* Cp. ^pirpav To^evfidTwv, "a quiver of arrows," in an inscrip-
tion from Coressos in Ceos (Dittenberger^ No. 348 (522, ed. 2),
Michel, 402, 1. 28). Noticeable extensions of this genitive are
trriipwos xp^ffovs 8pv6Sf "a crown of oak leaves in gold," ct. xp-
Klaaov, (FT, XP' 8d4>rtjs, etc., in an inscription of Delos (Dittenberger^
No. 367 (588, ed. 2), 7), and ol/iarLov 6/3eX6$ rpiK^Xios, "a three-
pronged fork-full of coagnlated blood," in an inscription of Cos
(Paton and Hicks, No. 37, G.D,I. 3636, 53).

314 THE USES OF THE CASES ' § 334

To this constructian belong such phrases as the
Latin id aetatis, and quid hoc est hominis, Plant.
Amph. ii. 2. 1 3 7 ( 7 6 9 ). Under it also may be ranged
the genitive of material (which is often made a
separate class) — raTny? ipioio, Od. iv. 124, " a carpet
of wool," monies auri " mountains of gold."

A further development of this type is the geni-
tive of definition, as in Homer's ^pKo^ oiovrmvy
where ohovrmv expresses what would have been ex-
pressed by oSoi/T€9 in apposition, "the fence of
teeth" ( = which is the teeth). This construction
is also frequent in Latin and English — monstrum
hominis (Terence) " a monster of a fellow," * etc.

(3) The genitive with substantives of verbal
nature.

This includes both the " genitive of the subject "
and the " genitive of the object."

Sarrfp kd(ov, Griver of good things.
dcUoT divitiarum. Giver of riches.
(09 ovih/ riiJAV TjpKeo'av Xiral 0€&v. Eur.
Supp, 262. For supplications of the
gods availed us naught.
Empedocles in deorurn opinions turpissume
labitur. Cic. KD. I. xii. 29. E. makes
shameful slips in his views about the gods.
i]fe€i Kcuv&v epymv iyxeipryr^^, Aristoph.
Birds, 257. He has come to take in
hand strange works.

* Here, however, the constrnction is the reverse of fpKos IBfan-iow^
the nom. in the one case being the gen. in the other, hbi xMt*-^
(Hdt. i. 36) "a monster-boar," is an exact parallel to monstrum
hominis.

§334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 315

omnem natv/ram esse conservatricem sui,
Cic. de Fin, v. ix. 26. All nature desires
self-preservation.
(4) The genitive with verbs.^
The verbs so used are verbs of ruling, and verbs
expressing feelings or sensations. The genitive in
Greek with verbs of eating, touching, etc., is partitive.
^Ayafiifivmv fieya Trdvrwv ^Afyyeiayv fivaaaev.
H. X. 32. Agamemnon ruled mightily
over all the Argives.
ut salvi poteremur domi. Plant. Amph.
187. That we might make ourselves
masters of the house in safety (i.e. get
safe home).
erapoi Xlaaovro eireaaiv rvp&v aivvfJiAvov^
livcu nraXiv. Od. ix. 224. My comrades
besought me that, taking of the cheeses,
they might retum.
haec res vitae me, soror, saturant. Plant.
Stick, i. 1. 18. These things surfeit me
with life.
ovie Ti olSev 7rev0€o<:. R xi. 657. Nor

knows he the grief at all.
<I>&T€ elSore xap/iti;?. II. v. 608. Cp.
expertus belli. Virg. Aen. x. 173.
The construction with such verbs is much less
frequent in Latin, except with verbs of remem-
bering— commeminit domi. Plant. Trin. 1027.
Compare also the rare constructions ne quoitcsquam

^ Delbriick is now inclined {Cfmndriss^ Syntax^ i. § 147) to make
this the starting point of the genitival usages. The older view
seems, howeyer, more probable.

316 THE USES OF THE CASES § 334

misereat,^ Ter, Hec, i. 1. 7 (64); quamquam domi
cupio, opperiar, Plaut. Trin. 841. This construction
of cupio is frequently explained as being on the
analogy of cnpidvs. It is to be observed that verbs
of condemning have no genitive in Homer, although
this genitive is frequent in later Greek and in Latin.
It is not found in Sanskrit, and its origin is not yet
satisfactorily explained.^

(5) The genitive with adjectives.

Many adjectives are developed from nouns fre-
quently used in apposition (cp. § 277); it is
therefore not surprising that they should take a
genitive; others again have a partitive meaning.
Adjectives expressing fulness take the genitive " full
of," they might also take the instrumental " filled
with." In Latin, owing (1) to the form for genitive
and ablative being originally the same in most stems ;
(2) to the fact that words expressing the opposite
idea "empty," "deprived of" take the ablative ; (3) to

^ Wagner inserts te before misereai, belieying it to be in the
Bembine MS.

^ The curious Tacitean genitive of purpose, for which the type
is Aegyptum proficiscUur cognoseendae antiquitatia (Ann, ii.
59), is not an imitation of the Gk. infin. with rod as is often
asserted, but is an old Italic construction possibly taken by Tacitus
from Sallust (cp. quae ille . . . cepU, non pro stta aid quorum
simulcU iniuria, sed legum ae liber talis subvortundae. Oral.
Phil. 10), but found also in Umbrian (see passage in Appendix C
from Eugubine Table vi. A, line 1, ocrer peihaner). It is noteworthy
that, though an Umbrian construction, it is not found in Plautus,
himself an Umbrian. The passage in Terence, Ad, 270 {ne id
adsentandilmagis quo haheam gratumfacere existvmes), which is
often quoted as a parallel, is a gerund, not a gerundive, is thus
quite distinct, and probably, as the editors assert, a close transla-
tion of the Greek inf. with rod.

§ 334 SYNTAX OF THE GENITIVE 317

the confusion in the separate history of Latin between
instrumental and ablative, words expressing fulness
frequently take the ablative.

\piKTi%^aC\ (TfOTJ]pia<i aveXin^, Eur. I.T,
487. He bewails himself when hopeless
of safety.
inops senatiis auxilii humani. Liv. iii. 7. 7.

The senate destitute of human aid.
aoiiol Tifiri^ Sfifiopoi elai. Od. viii. 479.

Bards are sharers in honour.
omnes virtutis compotes beati. Cic. T,I),
V. 39. All who possess virtue are happy.
iyo> ^€vo<i fjbkv rov \6yov rovB* i^epS).
Soph. OsR. 219. la stranger to this
tale will speak.
'OSu<r<rev9 eiriaTpo<\>o^ ^v dvdpdiircov. Od,
i. 177. Odysseus was regardful of men.
immemor beneficiorum, memor patriae,
Cic. PhiL ii. 27. Forgetful of kindnesses,
mindful of his country.
The construction is well developed in Greek and
still more widely in Latin, patiens laboHs, peritus
eamm regionum, studiosus litterarum, etc.

(6) The predicative genitive^ (properly only a
special usage of other types).

In Homer this is limited practically to one class
of phrases — irarpo^ eifi dryaOoio " of a good sire am
I," R xxi. 109 ; al/Aaro? ek aryaeolo, Od, iv. 611,-
" of good blood art thou." Owing to the confusion

^ Compare this construction with the descriptive genitive which
is so fully developed in Latin, but hardly exists in Greek. It shows
clearly how the genitive borders on the adjective.

318 THE USES OF THE CASES § 334 —

between genitive and ablative it is diflBcult to
distinguish between (1) this construction, (2)
the possessive genitive, and (3) 'the ablatival
genitive.

SI9 i^afiapreiv ravrov ovk dvBpo^ a-offyov.

Menander, 121. It is not for a wise man

twice to fall into the same mistake.

Cuiusvis hominis est errare; nullius,

nisi insipientis, in errore perseverare.

Cic. FhiL xii. 5. Everybody makes

mistakes; nobody but an idiot persists in

doing so.

scis tu med esse imi supselli virum. Plant.

Stick, 489. You know that I'm a back

bench man.

non multi cibi hospitem accipies multi

ioci. Cic. Fam. ix. 26. 4. You are to

have a guest of little appetite, infinite

jest.

(7) The adverbial genitive.

A few Greek constructions of time may be thus

classified, 1)01)9, //.viii 5 25, "in the morning"; i/uxcto?,

Od. xiii. 278, "in the night." Compare also rovB'

aifTov \v/cdfiavTo<;, Od, xiv. 161, " in this very year";

oir(op7)<i, II, xxii. 27, "in autumn"; oSttotc Kapiro^

airoKKvraL ovS* diroXeiiru j(€LiiaTo<; oifBe 0€p€v<:,

Od, vii. 118, "neither in winter nor in summer."

• Brugmann^ regards these as developments of the

partitive genitive, to which also he refers the

Homeric construction of " space witliin which," SU-

iTfyqaaov ireiioLo " they ' made their way over the

» Qt. Or.^ p 389.

§ 335 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE 319

plain," etc. (only with forms in -olo} and so an
archaism).

(8) The genitive with prepositions is probably
in no case original. In Greek it is only the genitive
of place that takes prepositions — cttI, irepX, and tiera.
But in Homer their usages are limited, and /lera
occurs only five times. In both Greek and Latin,
as in other languages, some nominal forms (such as
avriov in Greek, tentis in Latin), which have become
quasi -prepositions, take a genitive because- their
adjectival or substantivs^l force still survives.

335. The ablative was distinguishable from the
genitive only in the -o-stems. Hence

? . % - _ _ _ . _ V. The ablative,

it 18 supposed that the separate ablatival
form in the -o-stems was borrowed at a very early
period from the ablative of the pronouns. As its
name implies, it originally indicated motion from,
or separation. With this went comparison, " he is
taller than me " being, it seems, conceived in the
original Indo-Germanic language as " he is taller from
me." The smaller of the two objects compared is
taken as the standard of comparison.
(1) In ablatival sense.

a. With verbs with and without a preposition
prefixed.

el/ce, Ato9 dvyarep, iroXefiov kol BrjiOTrjro^,
E, V. 348. Withdraw fix)m the war and
the contest.
Jlv0&vo^ €l3a^. Soph. 0.i2. 152. Thou
Cfiunest from Pytho (cp. fidOpoyv Xaraade,
ib. 142).

1 Monro, 5^.(7.3 §149.

320 THE USES OF THE CASES % 336

(rare) Aegypto advenio do mum, Plaut. Most
440. I arrive home from Egypt.
Kr]p aj(€o^ fi€0€rj/ca, II. xvii 539. I set

my heart free from anguish.
iibi diu afueris dorrw. Plaut. Stich. 523.
When you have been long from home.
In classical Greek, verbs of depriving frequently
take two accusatives, though, as in Homer, many
traces of the original construction survive.

Tr)v fiiij acKOVTo^ airvvpoyv, 11. i. 430.

Whom they reft by force from him

against his will.

aoLiov MoOcra 6<f}0a\fi&v fjbkv a^po'C

/c.T.X. Od. viii. 64. The Muse bereft the

poet of his eyes.

The double accusative is also found in Homer.

It arises presumably from the possibility of using

the verb with either an animate or inanimate object

— *' they robbed him, they took away his goods " ; the

two constructions being finally fused into one. The

Latin construction of accusative and dative with

verbs of taking away is formed apparently on the

analogy of the contrasted verbs of giving. Eripuit

ms Tnorti is thus an imitation of dedit me Tnorti.

For the original construction cp. domo me eripuit ,

Ter. Adelph, ii. 1. 44 (198) ; se turri eripuit flamma,

Cic. Brut 90.

Verbs of freeing and warding off sometimes also
take the simple ablative.

Tov ye deol KaKOTrjro^ ekvaav. Od. v.
397. Him the Gods release from his
trouble.

§ 336 SYNTAX OF THE ABLATIVE 321

ego hoc te fasce levcibo. Viig. EcL ix. 65.

I will relieve you of this bundle.
T/owa? afiwe ve&v, II. xv. 731. He

warded ofif the Trojans from the ships.
aqiui et igni arcere} Tac. Ann, iii. 23. To
keep from fire and water.
h. With verbal nouns.

e/cfiaa-if; ov irp (f>aiv€0* a\6<;. Od. v. 410.
There appeareth nowhere an outlet from
the sea.
oKiyrj avdirvevai,^ iroXefiOLO. /Z. xi 801.

Short is the respite from war.
Periphanes Ehodo mercator (" a trader from

Ehodes"). Kaut. Adn. 499.
Tean^ Apulo atque Luceria equites
Bomanos lavdatores videtis, Cic. p.
Cluent. 197; but in the next clause
Boviano totoque ex S amnio lavdationes
missae sunt.
In Latin the construction was always limited to
place-names and soon died out, except in its usage to
give the tribe-name in the official designation of a
Roman, as Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Le mania Rufus
" Servius Sulpicius Rufus, son of Quintus, of the
tribe Lemonia."

c. With adjectives.

09 fi vl&v TToW&v T€ KaX iaOX&p evvLv
€07j/c€p. M, xxii 44. Who hath made
me bereft of many noble sona

^ In Plautus apparently only noater esto^ dum te poUris cU/ensare
iniuria, Bacch. 443; and possibly ecquis hie est qui iniuriam forihia
de/endatf Moet 900. Bnt/oribu9 may be a datire.

Y

322 THE USES OF THE CASES § 336 —

ut ego exheredem meis bonis me faciarrL
Plaut. Most 234. To disinherit myself
of my goods.
\(ofirjf: T€ Kal al<rj(€09 ovk cmBevcl^. H,
xiii. 622. Not lacking in disgrace and
shame.
vacui ctUtoribus agri, Ovid, Met viL 653.
Fields empty of tillers.
d. With prepositions and adverbs.
All prepositions indicating motion from govern
the ablative. In Greek, genitives with such pre-
positions represent the original ablative. Besides
the original prepositions some adverbial forms in the
process of becoming prepositions also govern this
case, e,g, v6a<l>i and TreXa? in Greek, tenus in Latin.
(2) The ablative of comparison.

a. ofd'xk'qv vvkto^ afielvo), //. iii. 11. A

mist better than night,
ywa mvliere alia nvllast pulcrior. Flaut.
Merc, i 1. 101. Than she there is no
fairer lady.

b, Comparatio compendiaria : for brevity or
by confusion the two things compared are not pwallel,
the most frequent case being that a quality in the
one case is compared with the possessor of the quality
in the other.

Kpelaaeov aire A(09 761/e^ irorafiolo
rervKTai. H. xxi. 191. The race of
Zeus is better than a river ("a river's

race").
sermo promptus et Isaeo torrentior. Juvenal,
iii 73. His language ready and more

§ 336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 323

rapid than Isaeus (instead of Isaei ser-
nwne).
c. Words and phrases with a meaning resem-
bling the comparative take the same construction.

<f>L\ov^ iroLelaOai erepov^ r&v vvv ovrtov.
Thuc. i. 28. 3. To make friends dififerent
from the present ones.
species alias veris. Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 208.

Ideas other than the true.
nvllus hoc metucvlosus aeque. Plant. Amph.
293. Nobody so nervous as he.
The Latin construction with a^qu^ may, however,
be instrumental (§ 338, 2).

336. The Greek dative, as has been already shown,
is a mixture of three original cases — the

- . , _ . , , . 1 vi' Tho dative.

dative, the locative, and the mstrumentaL
Latin retains the dative intact.

" The true Dative expresses the person to or for
whom something is done, or who is regarded as
chiefly affected or interested." ^

(1) The dative with verbs expressing (a) giving,
(b) addressing, including commanding, (c) obeying,
(d) helping, favouring, etc., (e) anger, (/) belief,
(g) yielding, (h) motion towards (rare), (i) with the
substantive verb.^

a. 17 fuopla BiBayaiv avOpcoiroi^ xa/cd, Menan-
der, ScTit. 224. Folly gives men troubles.

^ Monro, I£.0.^% 143. In practice the dative is not confined
to persons, as several of the following examples show, but the
majority of its usages are concerned with persons or with things
personified. The old and somewhat vague indiJicUio rei is the
only definition which will cover all the uses of the dative.

* Delbriick, S.F. v. pp. 140 ff.; cp. Syntax, i pp. 278 flf.

324 THE USES OF THE CASES § 336

illi perniciem dabo, EniL Medea, Fr. 5
(Meixy). To him I will bring ruiiL
Sometimes an object to some extent personified
appears in the dative instead of a person.

T17 717 Bav€L^€iv Kpelrrov iariv rj fipoToU,

Philem. Fr. li. c. Lending to the land

is better than to men.

debemur morti nos nostraque. Hor. A,P,

63. We and oms are a debt due to death.

b. This dative in Greek is a genuine dative of

interest, 7r/>09 riva being used of mere address.

el (TV fiTf ToS' ipvoec^, iym Xiyo) aoi, AescL
Ag. 1088. If thou understandest not
this, I tell it to thee.
dicit Cleomeni, '* tibi uni parcain" Cic.
Verr. Act ii. v. 105. He says to
Cleomenes " I shall spare you only."

c, oi ovBe ovTO) iarficovov oi ^AdTjvatoL, Herod.

vi 87. Not pven so did the Athenians
hearken to him. Cp. the phrase dicto
avdiens sum aiicui,

d, ov KaKOv iariv \ reipofjievoi,^ erdpoLaiv

a/jLvv€fi€v alirvv okedpov. IL xviii. 128.
No evil is it to ward off headlong ruin
from comrades in distresa
gnato ut medicarer tuo. Ter. Andr, v. 1.
12 (831). To be physician to your son.

e, KoX Kepafieiff; /cepafjuel Koreev Koi rixrovi

T€KT(ov. Hesiod, W,D. 25. Potter is
wroth with potter, wright with wright,
vehementer nunc mihist irata. Plant. Trvc.
545. She's awfully angry with me now.

§ 336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 325

/. /A^ iravTa wetpA iraai irtareveiv oeL
Menander, Sent 335. Try not always to
trust all men in all things.
credere suis militihus. livy, ii 45. To
trust their soldiers (cp. crede mihi, etc.).
g. TO ov fievo^ ovBevl el/cdv. Od. xi. 515.
Yielding in his might to none.
cedant arma togae. Cicero. Let arms
yield to the gown.
h, 8capoovfi€0a Bia irokifiov avrol^ iivai,
Xen. Anab. iii. 2. 8. We are minded to
meet them in arms.
it clamor caelo. Viig. Aen. v. 451. The
shout reaches to heaven.^
i. fiTjTTjp 01 ioT *A(f>po8iTff, IL y, 248. His
mother is Aphrodite (ot practically = €97).
'linria fiovtp r&v ah€\(f>&v iralhe^ ip/evotno,
Thuc. VL 55. 1. Hippias was the only
brother who had children.
semper in civitate quibus opes nullae sunt,
bonis invident Sail. Cat, 37. In a
state those who have no property always
envy the well-to-do.
(2) With substantives,
a. The dative is final.

ifwX Tp€<f>€TaL Tral? a- cot if p Sofioi^, Arist.
Clouds, 1158. I'm having a child brought
up, a saviour for my house.

^ This construction is not originally locative however it may
be understood later (cp. Delbriick, Orundriss, Syntax, L § 136).
Linscott {Proc. Amer. Phil. Assoc. 1897, pp. Iv. flf.) contends that
eaelo in this sentence is an abl. which may have come from either
instr. or loo., and translates ** A shout rii^gs through the sky."

326 THE USES OF THE CASES § 336

dies colloquio dictus est, Caesar, B,G. L
42. A day for a conference was ap-
pointed
6. The verbal noun takes the same construction
as its verb (rare).

T0V9 apj(pvTa^ vvv virrjpira*: toI<: vofioi^
iKaXeaa. Plato, Legg. 715 c. The
rulers I now call servants to the lawa
optdento homini servitus dura est Plant.
Amph, 166. Service to a wealthy man
is hard.
(3) With (a) adjectives and (6) adverbs.

CL iravpoiaiv irlavvo^ fieydTC avBpdatv eprf
iiTLxeipec, Theognis, 75. Trust few
when you take in hand great deeds.
Oeolav fikv aj(prj(rrov -^eOSo?, avOpdiroi^ Be
XpiJo-t/Aoi/. Plat. jRep, 389 B. While a
lie is useless to gods, it is useful to men.
bonus sit bonis, malus sit malis. Plant.
Bacch. 661. He must be good to the
good, bad to the bad.
6. €j(0po^ S17 fioL fcelvo^ ofi<o<; ^AiSao irvX/paiv
k.tX. II, ix. 312. Hateful indeed is
that man to me as the gates of Hades.
While the dative of advantage requires no special
discussion, the definition of the dative as a whole
including this, it is necessary to treat separately
(4) The final dative.

In Greek this construction is in the main con-
fined to the infinitive (cp. S 525 flf.), which is only
an isolated case-form — found in the different Indo-
Germanic languages from perhaps all cases, including

§ 336 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 327

the nominative. The infinitive fonns in Greek are
partly dative, partly locative in origin, but in usage
no distinction is observed. In Latin the accusatival
infinitive — the supine — assumes this final use (with
verbs of motion), while the dative and locative forms
(dice = Setf at, leg-l = Heg-a\ ; legere = Heges-i) retain
this value only in poetry. The final usage is how-
ever widely developed in the dative of the sub-
stantive proper, which in Latin is not fettered by
the danger of confusion with other cases.

T^ pa deo^ Trepl B&/c€v aoiBijv repireiv.
Od, viii. 44. To him above all God gave
song to make gladness.
mater [puerum]Jiliae do no dedit. Plant.
Tncc, 802. The mother gave him to her
daughter for a gift.
Cp. bibere^ da usque plenis cantharis.

Plant. Persa, 821. Give us to drink.
vvfi<l>a^ €9 vfjaov airtpKiae rrj\o0i vaUiv.
Od. xiL 135. The nymphs she removed
to the island to dwell afar.
ea relicta huic arrabonist pro illo argento.
Ter. Heaut. iii. 3. 42 (603). She was
left him as an earnest for that money.
Cp. parasitum misi peter e argentum. Plant.
Cure, 206. IVe sent to ask money.

^ This coUoquial construction is often supposed to be a Graecism ;
if so, it must have been established early in Latin, for it is found
twice in Cato {H.H. 89). There is, however, no certain parallel in
the other Italic dialects, and Virgil's more extended use may
fairly be put down to Homeric influence : cp. ille suo moriens
dat habere nepoti (Aen. ix. 362) with airrb-p 6 a^e Qv4^t
* Ayafjtdfjvoyi Xetire <l>opijvai (11, ii. 107).

328 THE USES OF THE CASES % 336

(T^ Ovfw^i ainJKCv . . . Aa xeZpa? dvaa^eiv.

M, vi. 256. Thy spirit hath moved thee

to lift thy hands to Zeus.
turn profecto me sibi habeant scurrae ludi-

ficatui, Plaut. Poen. 1281. Then

certainly let the wits have me for a

laughing-stock.
Cp. quern virum sumis celebrare ? Hor. Od.

i. 12. 1. What hero do you undertake

to glorify ?
rev^ea, davfia ISeaBat, 7Z. x. 439. Armour,

a wonder to see.
receptui signum, Cic. PhU. xiii. 15. A

signal for retreat.
Cp. hoc mihi haud laborist^ laborem hunc

potiri. Plaut. Rud. 190. It is no trouble

to me to endure this trouble.
X'mroL fidpBioToi Oeieiv, IL xxiii. 309.

Horses very slow to run (for running).
max apta natando^ crura dot \limus\.

Ovid. Met. xv. 3 7 6. Legs fit for swimming.

^ Is it possible that this dative so frequent in Latin can have
been developed in early times through attraction to infinitives of
a similar form as here ? This has happened in Sanskrit : hrah-
ni&na indram mahdyanto arkair avardhayann dhaye hdntava u.
Big Veda, v. 31. 4. The priests magnifying Indra with songs
strengthened him for the slaying of the serpent (for the serpent
to slay it). Delbriick, S.F. v. p. 89.

■ The construction of the dative of the gerund with an adjective
is rare at all periods. The elder Pliny affects it : cp. N.ff.
xxxiv. 149: rubens [/errum] non est habile tundendo "iron
when only red-hot is not malleable." The dative of the gerund
is said to govern an accusative only twice in Plautus and nowhere
else in Roman literature (Draeger, ii.^ p. 836). The dative of the
gerundive is much more common.

§ 337 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE 329

referundae hdbeo linguam Ttatam gratiae.
Plaut. Persa, iii. 3. 24. I have a tongue
bom to make (for makiiig) a due return.
te videre audireque aegroti. Plaut. THn,

76. Sick to see and hear you.^
istaec lepida sunt memoratui? Plaut.
Bacch, 62. These things are pleasant to
recall.
The possibility that the predicative dative
originates to some extent, if not entirely, in attrac-
tion to another dative in the sentence is strengthened
by a comparison of such sentences as Inventus nomen
fecit Peniculo mihi, Plaut. Men, i. 1. 1, where Pent-
culo without doubt is attracted into the same case
as mihi. From its nature the predicative dative
requires a personal dative along with it. There is
no difference in meaning between est mihi cura and
est mihi curae : both types of construction are found
in Plautus, but the dative in the later period and
especially in Tacitus develops enormously at the
expense of the nominative.

The original dative was not used with preposi-
tions. The use of prepositions with the Greek dative
arises fix)m its locative and instrumental elements.

337. The locative is the case expressing situa-
tion in or at. From the earliest period,
however, there were added to this signi-

' This particular type is very rare in early times ; later it is
much extended, especially with participial forms.

^ The only difference between this construction and the *' supine
in -u** seen in incredibile memoratu est (Sail. Cat, vi. 2) is in
the case form, memoraiui being the dative, memoratu probably
the locative of the same substantive (§ 313).

330 THE USES OF THE CASES § 337

fication the related meanings of on to — irehit^ jSoKe
(Homer) " he threw it on the ground " — and among
— TouTL ieLirev " among them he spake." The con-
fusion between situation in and motion towards is
common in many languages.
(1) Locative of space.

'E\XaS^ oiKia vamv. H. xvi. 595. Dwell-
ing in Hellas.
ac€ Zev?, 7]fi€Po<: OiiKufiirq)} B. xxL 388.

Zeus sitting on Olympus heard.
nvllust Ephesi quin sciat. Plant. Bacch.
336. There is nobody at Ephesus but
knows.
KLvrjaavTe^ r&v ^OXv^iiriaaiv fj AeXxfioU
XPVM'^Toyv. Thuc. i. 143. 1. Kemoving
some of the wealth at Olympia or Delphi.
e Philippa matre natam Thehis, Plant.
Epid, 636. Bom at Thebes of Philippa.
TTUT^jp (709 avrodv fiifivei dyp^, Od. xi.
187. Your father remains there in the
country.
sibi quisque ruri metit Plant. Most, 799.
In the country everybody makes hay for
himself.
More abstract.

/cexapouLTo Ovfi^. ILL 256. They would
be gladdened at heart.

^ After the confusion of the cases, Greek naturally used
genuine dative forms in a locative sense and vice versa. For a
surviving locative singular accompanied by dative forms used as
locatives cp. jcfipvf iroTfUK f^p *0\vfiirLqL re jcat *I<r0fioT Ne/x^^ T€
ffvyOifieyoSf Pindar, Nem. iv. 75 ; for a locative plural cp. the next
example in the text<

§ 337 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE 331

absurde facis, qui te angas anijni, Plaut.
Epid. 326. You're an idiot, to vex your-
self at heart.

(2) Locative of time.

fiiJLaTL TpLTCLTtp. IL ix. 363. On the third

day.
die septimi. Plant. Menaech. 1156. On

the seventh day.
oySodrtp erev, Od. iv. 82. In the eighth

year.
Cp. qiiot annis (passim) ; quot mensihus,

Cato, R,R. 43.

(3) The locative plural of persons, which is dis-
tinctly preserved in Sanskrit and in Greek, is inextri-
cably confused with the dative in Latin wherever its
place is not usurped by the accusative with such pre-
positions as inter. In Greek the Usage is found in such
sentences as 89 Tpwcrl Oeof; m rCero B'q/iq) (H, xi. 58)
" who was honoured among the Trojans as a god in
the land.'' Compare also the phrases at the beginning
of a speech rola-i S' aveoTrj " among them up rose he,"
Tolai Be fivOddv fjpx^ " among them he took up his
tale."

(4) The locative of persons with verbs was found
commonly with (a) verbs of ruling; (6) verbs of
taking delight in and the like. In Latin this con-
struction is probably retained with potior and with
some verbs of the 6-class, the preposition in which
is so frequently used with them seeming to show
their locative sense. The Homeric construction with
Bi'x^ofiai, — Sifiiari Sk KaXKiiraprftp B^kto Biira^ {U,
XV. 88) "From Themis the fair-cheeked received she

332 THE USES OF THE CASES § 337

the cup" — «eem8 better taken (with Monro ^) as a
genuine dative than (with Delbriick ^) as a locative,
although similar locative constructions are found in
Sanskrit. In this construction Se^ofiai means to
accept as a favour or to take as an attendant does ;
in its ordinary meaning it takes the ablatival genitive.
a, Beola-i koI avOpmiroia-L avdaa-ei. 11. ii. 669.
Over (among) gods and men he rules.
TroXKrjaiv vrjaoiaL koX "Kpyei iravrl avda-
aeiv. R ii. 108. To be king over many
islands, and Aigos all.
myitis locis potiri? SalL Jug, 92. 4. To
be master in many places.
b, fiTJva yhp olov Cfieiva rerapirofievo^ TeKeea--
aiv I KovpiSijj T a\6'^(p KaX KT^fiaaiv,
Od. xiv. 244. For but one month I abode
and had joy in my children, my lady wife,
and possessions.
Cp. in virtute recte gloriamur. Cic. N.D. iii.
87. In virtue do we rightly pride our-
selves.
(5) The locative is found also with {a) substan-
tives, and (&) adjectives.

In Latin this construction is absorbed in the geni-
tive, traces remaining only in such phrases as aeger
animi, etc.

a. Tp&a *^pij(06vLo^ riicero Tpwea-atv ava/era.

^ S.O,^ § 143, 2. Plutarch {de vita et poesi ffomeri, 13) says,
&ra» S* ctirri "Si^arS ol ffKTJirrpov" Kal **QifU(m «c.t.X.," ^i' toiJtocj
S<apli'€i, cp. Inscrip. of Melos, p. 563. But it is not confined to
Doric.

* Abl. Loc, Instr, p. 40 ; S,F, iv. p. 56 ; Syrttax, i. p. 226.

' Delbriick, Syntax^ i. p. 248, calls this the instrumental.

§ 337 SYNTAX OF THE LOCATIVE 333

//. XX. 230. Erichthonius begat Tros,
the king among the Trojans.

Cp. ^rj^aio-iv eviiriroi^ ava^. Eur. Phoen,
1 7. King in Thebes famed for steeda

tS)V TOi fjuaraitov avSpdaiv (j^povrjfiaTtov | 17
yXAaa qCKri0ij<; yir/vcrai Kartf^opo^,
Aesch. S, c. T. 438. Verily of vain
imaginings among men the tongue be-
Cometh infallible accuser.
b, apcirpeiria Tp<!>€a'ai, H, vi 477. Illus-
trious among the Trojans.

(6) The locative of motion towards. English has
the same construction.

KXrjpov Kwejj ^oKe, E, vii. 187. The lot

he threw in the helmet.
X'^f^'' ^oiXe BivBpea. U. ix. 541. He

threw the trees on the ground.
procumbit humi^ bos, Virg. Aen, v. 481.

The ox falls on the ground.
toto proiectus corpore terrae. Virg. Aen, xi.

87. Cast at his length on the earth.

(7) The prepositions with the locative in Greek
are afi<f)l, ava, iv, iirl, fierii, irapa, Trepl, 7rpo9 (Trporl),
and inro, of which afi<f>l, iv, iirl, irepl, and irpo^ are
themselves old locatives. The Latin prepositions are
in, sub, super, subter, coram,

(8) From the locative a considerable number of
adverbial forms are made. Besides the prepositions

' According to Draeger, Hist, SyrU, i.' p. 573, not found before
Cicero, terrae not before Virgil. A much earlier example of humi
is Ter. And. 726 {Neu6 ii.* p. 642) ; terrcLe is found in Ennius
(Nme, p. 641).

334 THE USES OF THE CASES § 337

mentioned may be cited alel {alh, § 312), iripva-i,
"last year," avrl ante, penes (§ 312), pron. ttoZ; Old
Lat. qui, etc.

338. The instrumental is the case of the person,
▼iii. The iMtru- objcct, or circumstance accompanying,
mentaL ^j. q^^jj^ ^g agent, instrument, or cause.
The transition from the idea of association to that
of instrument is easy and can be observed in many
languages. Thus in modem English with is first a
preposition of association : The man with the child,
the man with the sword. From the latter usage
comes without difficulty with the sword he slew them,
the earlier form of which would be : he had a sword
and he slew them,

( 1 ) The sedative instrumental, whether (a) person,
or (&) circumstance.

a, oKuifievo^ vtjI re Kal erdpoia-i, Od, xL 161.
Wandering with a ship and with comrades.
si aedificahis, operis iumentis materia adiu-
vabunt, Cato, R.Ii. 4. If you build,
they will assist you with workmen, beasts
of burden, and wood.
T0A9 dr/aOoc^ avfifiurye, Ka/colai Se /A17 7ro0
oftdprei,, Theognis, 1165. Mix with the
good and company never with the bad.
ipse uno graditur comitattts Achate. Virg.
Aen. i. 312. Himself stalks forward at-
tended by Achates only.
6. Tpd)€9 la'xji laav, E. xvii. 266. The
Trojans marched on with a shout.
Tion dicam dolo. Plant. Men. 228. I will
not speak with guile.

§ 338 SYNTAX OF THE INSTRUMENTAL 335

With non-personal substantives in Homer avro^
is frequently combined : avroU o^eKotatv (Od. xiv.
77) "skewers and aU." The construction appears
also in classical prose : fiiav Se [vavv] avrol^ avhpdatv
elKov (Thuc. ii. 90. 6) "one ship they took, men
andaU."^

The accompanying circumstance has frequently
an adjective with it, a construction very extensively
developed in Latin.

ary^LfioXov Si a<f> fpyff 'FiKafirj TertrjOTL

dvfiS. n, xxiv. 283. And near to them

came Hecuba with anguish-stricken heart.

utinam ne unquam . . . cupido corde

pedem extvlisses} Ennius. Would that

you had never set forth with your covetous

heart.

Hence comes the frequent descriptive ablative in

Latin.

(2) The instrumental of likeness and equality.
The place of this construction hfis generally been
usurped by the dative or by usages with preposi-
tions.

0€6<l>iv fiTjoTcop drdXavTo^, IL vii. 366.

A counsellor equal with the gods.
(Cp. also ?cro9, ofioio^, 6fioia>, etc.)
Compare with this nvllust hoc metucvlosus aeque,
cited in § 335, 2 c. The construction, which is not
common in Latin, falls within the border-land between
ablative and instrumental.

^ For an explanation of the effect of aCrris in this phrase see
Monro, ff.O,^%liij note.

« Draeger, Hist. Syni, i.« p. 638.

336 THE USES OF THE CASES § 338

(3) InstTamental of cause. Not of peraons in
early LatiiL^

wf^eXe^ airroff oXeaOai, avBpi £a/i€i9
xparepw. K iiL 429. Would that
thou hadst perished there, slain by a stout
warrior.

fl S e0€€» fiopert avep.w, Od. xiv. 299.
The ship sped on with the north wind.
(rare) iacerU suis testibus. Cic. p. Mil, 47.
They lose their case by reason of their
own witnesses.

(4) Instrumental of mean& Very common.
oaaov iyw Svpafuu j(^€pa'Lv re iroaLv re

KoX aOivei. II, xx. 360. As far as I am
able with hands and feet and strengtL
seiquis scies violasit [sc. honce loucoin] dolo
mcUo, lovei bovid piaclum datod, Inser.
from Spoletium (Lindsay, Lat Inscrr, No.
xxxii). If any one wittingly (sciens)
have violated {violassit = violaverit) this
grove of malice aforethought, let him make
expiation to Jupiter with an ox.
1(5) Instrumental with verbs.
|This very common construction requires illustra-
tion only in the case of verbs of (a) price, (b) fulness.
a. irpiaro [jfie] tcredrea'aiv kolaiv, Od, xv.
483. He bought me with his own
wealth.
quattuor minis ego emi istam. Plant. Men,
205. I bought her with (for) four
minae.

^ Draeger, Hist. Synt,^ § 229.

§ 338 SYNTAX OF THE INSTRUMENTAL 337

6. (rare) tcI) Se oi Saae SaKpvo<f>i TrKrjaOep,

n, xvii 696. His two eyes were filled

with tears.

telis complebantur corpora, Plaut. Amph.

251. Their bodies were filled with darts.

Both of these classes also take a genitive. The

genitive of price is probably predicative. It occurs

in both languages with substantive verbs. The

genitive of fulness is no doubt partitive (§ 334, 5).

(6) Instrumental with (a) substantives, (&)
adjectives, and (c) numerals to express the thing
in respect of which a predication about the subject
is made.

a. (rare) vofii^e yqfUK; S0OX09 elvai r^ yS/^).

Gnom, 77. Marry and think yourself a
slave as regards your life.
natura tu illi pater es consiliis ego, Ter.
Ad, i. 2. 46 (126). By birth you're his
father, in schemes I am.

b, o7rXoTaT09 y€V€fj<f>iv. U, ix. 58. Youngest

in point of birth.
hie metis amicus illi generest proximus,

Ter. Ad, iv. 5. 17 (651). My friend is

nearest to her in respect of kin.
evpvrepos &fioLai} It, iii. 194. Broader in

respect of shoulders,
swm pernix manibus, pedibus mobilis. Plaut.

M,G, 630. I am active with my hands,

agile with my feet.

^ In Greek this construction disappears before the ** accusative
of the part affected.'* In Latin, however, it is the regular con-
struction ; the accusative is a Graecism for the most part.

Z

338 THE USES OF THE CASES % 338 —

c. iroKKoi apiJd\i^ Herodotus [apiOfiov in
Homer], Many in number.
mille numero navium. Cic. Verr. ii. 1. 48.
A thousand ships in number.

(7) Instrumental of measure with comparatives
and superlatives. Of words of quantity Homer uses
the accusative (ttoXv, fieya, etc.), but

rh oS* iarlv fieuov fikv Kei^>aK^ * Ay a/iifiifovo^
"ArpeiBcLo; iZ.iii. 193. Who is this less
by a head than Agamemnon ?

Tie pilo quidem minus te amdbo. Cic. ad
Quint, Fr. ii 15. 5. I shan't love you a
hair the lesa

(8) The instrumental of place disappeared in
Greek except in such pronominal words as iri} " by
which way ? "

(9) The instrumental of time is possibly found
in XP^^^ ^ " ^^^ time," " in time."

Both types are possibly extant in Latin. Del-
briick^ cites fix)m Caesar omnibus viis semitisque
essedarios ex silvis emittebat " &y all roads and bye-
paths he sent out chariot fighters from the woods "
(cp. iiropevero . . . t§ oS^ rjv irporepov avrb^
iiroi'qaaTo, Thuc. ii 98. 1, "6y the road"); g^d
iniquo loco atque impari congressi numsro quinque
horis proelium sustinuissent {B,C. L 47) "for five
hours." But this time usage is indistinguishable
from the locative.

(10) Adverbial

Adverbial forms from the instrumental are common

» Brug. Or, Or.^ § 463, n. 2.

» A.L.I, p. 64, Syntax, i. p. 244.

§ 339 SYNTAX OF ABSOLUTE CASES 339

in both Greek and Latin. If the instrumental had
for one of its endings -a (or -m), many particles such
as Xva, fiera, ireBit, and adverbial forms such as
rdxa, &/ca, may be referred to the instrumental.
l'<f>i, XiKpt-^i-^; are probably sprung from the same
origin (^ 314, 323). In Latin, forms like citOy
modo are instrumentals.

(11) With prepositions.

In Greek aifv and afia seem to have been origin-
ally used with the instrumental^ In Latin cum
is the only instrumental preposition.

Absolute Casea

339. In all branches of the Indo-Germanic family
of languages there are case-forms used mainly with
participles and referring to some person or thing
other than the subject of the sentence, while at the
same time they are dependent on no other word.
Such forms are said to be in an absolute Different un-
case. But the Indo-Germanic languages f^^ "^Z^ii
do not all use the same case for this ^^'
purpose. Sanskrit uses regularly the locative, occa-
sionally the instrumental and the genitive, Greek
uses the genitive and, in certain cases, the accusative,
Latin the ablative, which may represent an original
locative or instrumental. Old English the dative,
which represents either the original locative or the
instrumental, and the Slavonic languages the dative.
The separate languages seem therefore to have

* Delbriick, S.F, iv. p. 133 ; fierii (ibid. p. 132) was originally
used with the locative.

340 SYNTAX OP ABSOLUTE CASES % 339 —

developed the construction independently ^ and from
somewhat different points of view. In

Greek absolate ^ , , . . , . .

case in genitive Greek the construction 18 a real genitive

of time. °

and not an ablative. It probably arose
in Greek out of the genitive of time^ (§ 334, 7).
Latin abaoiate The ablative absolute in Latin more prob-
caae ia instr. ^jj^ represents the original instrumental
than the locative, for in the early Latin the preposi-
tion cum occasionally appears in such constructions :
cum divis volentibus, Cato, -B.JS. 141 ; and in the
other Italic dialects where the locative is still a
living case, the instrumental ablative is used in this
construction.* While therefore the Homeric ^eXlov
avi6vTo<i taken literally is " unthin the time when
the sun rises," the Latin sole oriente is probably not
" at the time when the sun rises " but " along with
the rising sun."

Corresponding to Greek sentences without ex-
pressed subject,* such as e^ecrri, the

Special forms , , ^ x. • i ^c/

of absolate con- absolute participlc etov appears m the

Btructlon. _ 5 . , . ,

acc. This construction, however, is not
Homeric. In Cicero and the later Latin the parti-
ciple appears in the ablative (1) without an accom-
panying substantive : aicspicato, nee opinato, etc. ; or
(2) with a clause in place of the substantive : terga

' No doubt various usages of the locative and instrumental
bordered upon this construction from the earliest period, but the
use of one case for this meaning was not yet fixed.

9 Monro, jy.G'.Ǥ246.

' Cp. Oscan, Umtad praeaerUid ^'populo praesente" (Bnigmann,
I.F. V. p. 148 n.).

* More accurately, without a substantive in the nom. in apposi-
tion (§ 381).

— § 340 DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICLES 341

dantibvs qui modo secuti erant ( = secutoribvs), liv.
xxxi. 37. 7.

XXI. Fragments of Oases

Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions.

340. Between adverbs and prepositions no distinct
line can be drawn. When a case ending

'^ Prepositions

was found too vague to express the used to define

. i. J J . t. J case-meaning.

meaning intended, another word was
added in order to convey greater definitenesa 6fifidT(ov
airo with anastrophe is therefore no exception but the
original type. So arrjdeaai, wept "on the breast
round about " would precede wepl arrjO^aai " round
about the breast." The more local the meaning of a
case is, the more prepositions it requires to convey
definiteness of meaning. Hence the cases which
are most widely construed with prepositions are the
accusative, locative, and ablative ; the instrumental
needs fewer and the genitive and dative none. The
preposition therefore is only an adverb specialised to
define a case usage.

What then of airo^aipei, avea^oVy and other verb
forms which are combined with words

Prepositions

such as accompany noun cases ? Here (adverbs) with
the adverbial meaning is still retained —
i/€ft)9 airofiaivet " from the ship he goes off," xet/oa?
aveaxov " they raised their hands up." In Homer
these adverbial forms are still frequently separated
from the verb with which they go. In the later

342 ADVERBS FROM CASE FORMS § 340 —

history of the language, the combination of adverb
and verb becomes more constant.

341. In the early history of all languages there
Adverbs which *"^ probably few adverbs which are not
fOTma'*"? d2 nominal or pronominal forms; adverbs
ciension. formed from verbs are late and always

rare (§ 278). Adverbs ending in -(?, airo, irpo,
inro, cannot be identified with any known case ;
ayfr ( = Att-?) Lat. aps (ab), ef ( = e/c-9) Lat ex may
however be genitives ; afuf>l Lat. amb- in ami-itus,
etc., dvT'l Lat. ante, eir-l, cp. Lat. 06,^ locatives
with the -t suffix, ev (also ivl) Lat. in, d-rep (cp.
ardp) Eng. asunder ( = *sntr), inrkp Lat super
( = 8-uper ^) probably suffixless locatives, dv-it, xar-d,
fter-ib, Bi-h possibly instrumentals, if the original
suffix of the instrumental is -a or -m. In va-T€po<:,
an old adverb *ud (Skt. ud, Eng. out) is concealed by
phonetic changes, varepo^ represents the compara-
tive stem found in the English utter. The simple
form survives in Cyprian as v or v, a preposition
equivalent in meaning to eiri, and possibly in
irdv-v, a compound first found in Attic, though
wav'vaTaTo<: is Homeric. Sometimes a whole group
of adverbial or prepositional forms seem to come
from one original stem, Trapo^ (gen.)* ''rapai (dat.)
Lat. prae, irep-l (loc.), irap-h (instr.), to which are
akin 7r/)09, iripav, irkpa. Old Latin «« {sBd) in s^
fraude " without deceit " is apparently an ablative

^ With variant grade (Brugmann, Or. Or} p. 219).

' «- in 9u,per, snih as compared with ut^/>, inrh, Skt upari, upa,
is explained as the weak grade of ex (Osthoff, M,U, iv. pp. 156,
266).

— §342 PRONOMINAL CONJUNCTIONS 343

for s^d (cp. sed-itio), Latin de is probably the
instr. of an -o-stem, a view which receives support
from the fact that the corresponding form in Old
Irish dl produces aspiration and cannot have origin-
ally ended in a consonant.^ The history of ^vv and
a-ifv, which are said to be originally different,^ and of
Latin cum (from ^kom- root of Koivo^==*KOfjir-ip'^)
is not clear.

Of other forms which have certainly a case
origin may be mentioned aXXA, the proclitic form of
aWa ace. plural (cp. Lat. ceterum) ; afui ( = *8mm-a)
probably instrumental ; ofuo-^, frpm the same root as
a/m but with different grade, ablative.

342. Some conjunctions have doubtless descended
from the primitive period and cannot be certainly
analysed. Such are rk Lat. que, yk, fir/, vif, vif-v, and
vvv Lat. num, er-t Lat. et, ov possibly Latin hau,
hau-t, hau-d?

The great majority of conjunctions are certainly
or probably of pronominal origin. Such are in
Greek o-re, a-re accusative forms of the pronominal
stem *iO' (§ 325, iv.), ov genitive, ol locative, fj and
i-va probably instrumentals, rol ethic dative " mark
you ! ", €(a)9, which in Homer must be scanned ^09
( = *£a-f 09, cp. Skt. yd'Vat with a different suflBx).
No conclusive explanation of xal has yet been

* Buck, VocaZismua der oskiscken Sprocket p. 31.

' Eretschmer, K,Z, xxxi. pp. 415 if., identifies ^ify and adp^ sup-
posing (- to change to <r- as in Latin 8-uptr, The double forms
date from Indo-Germanic times and hence a byform iv is found
in Cyprian and Pamphylian. This form he identifies with the
Lithuanian 8iL Old Bulgarian s& " with.**

' Cp. L. Horton-Smith, Law of Thumeyaen and Hcvoet^ pp. 66 if.

344 LATIN CONJUNCTIONS §342 —

obtained.^ Latin farms are qmd^ quia aocusative,
ulei (ut), ubei (ubi) locatiye, quo ablative and instru-
mental quin is the locative qui with the abbieviated
negative ne added. Many otiier fonns of obviously
pronominal origin have not yet been satisfiEustonly
explained. Such are quam, cum {quom), ianu The
" if " particles in both Greek and Latin present many
difficulties. el and Doric eU were formerly ex-
plained as being the same as LaL set {si) and
Oscan svai. But the loss of aspiration is not easily
accounted for, and Brugmann^ conjectures that el iB
the locative of an .-o-stem, at of an a-stem fiom the
pronominal stem o- (§ 325, viiL) foimd in the Skt.
genitive a-sya, etc. sei and svai may also be taken
as masculine and feminine locatives fix)m the pro-
nominal stem sjfo- (§ 328, ii).'

XXn. Stem Formation in the Noon

343. Those nouns which are formed directly
from the root with or without the addition of case
suffixes have already been discussed. It remains
now to classify the elements that are employed in

^ Some explain it as an old neuter pi. =Lat quae, in which case
we should expect not koX but *TaL To account for the Cyprian
Ka, Kar^t xat (also Arcadian), all meaning "and,'* Brugmann {Or,
Or.* p. 548) connects more plausibly with Lat. co-, cum, Gaulish
CO-, com-f and the Germanic prefix (Goth.) ga- ; also with xoiifSs
and icotA {*kriU-), 0, Welsh cant, 0. Ir. eit ** along with" (Fick,
Idg. ^.MLp. 94).

> Or. Or.^ p. 248.

' For a full account of such adverbial case-forms see Delbriick,
OrwndrUs, Syntax, i. chapters xiv. and xv.

— § 344 CLASSIFICA TION OF SUFFIXES 345

the languages with which we have to deal, in order
to huild up the stem in those noun forms which are
not made directly from the root.

The suffix attached to a stem or a class of stems
may be either simple or complex. A simple and com-
simple sufiBx is that which we cannot pi«^ »"»»«»•
analyse into further component parts, e.g, the -o- in
the stem syllable of oZic-o-?, the -u- of mc-u-s, A
complex sufiix is one which can be analysed into
component parts, e,g, €Xa;^-4cr-T0-9 pos-tu-mu-s,
where the superlative suffix in each case can be
analysed into two suffixes which have a separate
and independent vitality of their own.

344. The suffixes used in stem formation may
be most easily classified according to the sounds of
which they are composed. We thus have six series
of suffixes corresponding to the six ciasaiflcation
classes into which sounds were divided o'*""^*^*-
(^ 113-5). There may be stems ending (1) in
stops whether voiced, breathed, or aspirated, (2) in
spirants whether voiced or breathed, (3) in nasals
and (4) in liquids, in either case whether consonant
or sonant (§ 81), (5) in vowels or (6) in diphthongs.
But all six classes are not equally well represented
in language. Stems ending in stops are com-
paratively rare, those in spirants, nasals, and liquids
of few types but widely developed, those in vowels
commonest and most widely developed of alL^

^ Torp, Den Oraeske Nominalflexion (Christiania, 1890), pp. 10 ff.,
contends that the consonant stems are contracted out of o-stems,
*^r9onO'8 becoming *6rsSn-8 {4p<nfv) ; *rUro-s becoming ^nir-s
{aviip). Cp. also note after § 265.

346 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 344

From vowel stems it is impossible to separate diph-
thongal stems, for, as we have seen, in various ablaut
series the weak grade of a diphthong is a simple
vowel (§ 252). It is also to be remembered that
the uniformity in stem suflBxes, which most lan-
guages present to us throughout all the cases of the
noun, is not the original state of things, but the
result of a great variety of changes, both phonetic
and analogical, extending over a great period of time,
during which many external forces may have been
brought to bear upon the elements of language.
The philologist in dealing with this part of lan-
guage is somewhat in the position of the historian
viewing an ancient battlefield or the ruins of some
early fortress. The historian sees earthworks, or
the outlines of a camp on the battlefield, he may
trace the course of the moat round the castle and
make out where some of the principal buildings
stood. But without other aids he can advance no
Ceuiiher. The earthworks will not tell him how the
battle swayed this way or that, the ruins will not
reveal to him the date or number of the sieges they
have endured. And so it is in language. An errant
form here and there shows that in former days
the uniformity which is now to be found did not
always exist. But to trace the causes and course
of the changes is, in most instances, more than is
at present possible. We do know, however, that
the Latin uniformity which carries -<5r through
all the cases of da-tor is not original (§ 48), and
we have good reason also to doubt whether o-
in -o-stems did originally appear in all cases

— § 346 STEMS ENDING IN STOPS 347

except the vocative and possibly also the locative
(§ 251).

345. One main factor in causing diversity in
stems was accent, one main cause of influences which
uniformity was analogy. Most of the »ff«^t suflixee.
sufl^es which we can assign with certainty to
the original Indo-Germanic language show traces of
gradation; few if any have escaped the working
of analogy. And analogy afifects not merely the
form of words when they have once come into
existence. New words are made by analogy. Only
grammarians and educated people recognise the
elements of which their words are made. The great
majority of the human race make a new word by
adding to a word already known that which they
imagine to contain the meaning they vdsh to express
by the new word. If lytel-ing means child, then
young-ling may be formed in the same way, and so
on (§ 286). Every child makes its new words for
itself by analogy: hence mouses as the plural of
mouse, oxes of ox, etc. The forms mouses, oxes
show good reasoning, but defective knowledge of the
history of language.

346. i. Stems in stops are but poorly developed
in the Indo-Gfermanic languages. Those

which are found come mostly from dental
and guttural sujQSxes, and all or nearly all of them
have forms ending in -0- parallel to them. Labial
root nouns like K7i/iy\lr (cp. kKotto'^),

^ , . . / . T . , . . 1 1 Labial stems.

ffptyff, ^\e^, Lat. daps, slips have de-
veloped in the separate languages, and have no exact
etymological equivalents elsewhere.

348 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 347

347. Stems in -U, Few seem to reach back to

the Indo- Germanic period, although

Dental steuw. ^ . -, -r .- 1 1 /• •

Grreek and Latin have each a fair
number of forms.

vi^ {vvKT-itt) : Lat. wm {noct-U) : £ng. night (Goth, naht-s gen. ).

Compare also ^179, '>Uj3rjf;, 071/(09 : Latin locu-pU-s,
sacer-dos ( = ^sacro-dot-s through ^sdcr-dOs)} Greek
has no parallel to such Latin forms as com-es (from
rt. i " go ") gen. com-i't-i-s, seges gen. sege-t-is. Greek
moreover has changed many such stems into -d-
Changes of -«. stoms, possiblj bccause in some cases
Btenw in Greek, j^^^j^ genes havc the same form of
assimilation. Hence parallel to the Latin nepos
TiepOtis " descendant," " grandson," Greek has vhroBe^
(aXoavBvfjsi)' Here a confusion has taken place
between the original stem *7hepdt- *nepot' and a
Greek negative form from ttov^, vrjiro^; (cp. rpi-irosi)
"footless," because in Odyssey iv. 404, where the
phrase " children of Halosydne " occurs, the creatures
indicated are seals, to whom the epithet *i/i;7roSe9
would be equally applicable.^ Sanskrit and other
languages prove that Latin has kept the original
form. Other words which have passed in Greek
from 't- to -d- in .the suffix are the numeral
substantives £€/ca9, ir€VTd<$, etc, which in other
languages show a -^-stem.

For the suffixes in -n^ see ^ 362 ff.

348. Stems in -d-. These are more numerous

' . -^ in compounds probably is, as Streitberg contends, a relic
of the common suffix -to- (§ 378).
* Cp. Johansson {LF, iv. p. 144).

— § 349 DENTAL AND GUTTURAL STEMS 349

in Greek and in Latin than in any other language.
Greek has by far the greater number, many of which,
however, as in some cases above, can be shown to be
analogical modifications of other stems. Secondary
formations from this stem are to be found in the
adjectives in -(0&79 -aiSc? (woi-tuSij^ " grassy," etc.),
which are often confused with compounds ending
in -€t8i;9, the signification being almost identical.^
The -S- in ^/)a-9, ept-S-o^ and some others is obvioiusly
late, for the ace. epirv to an -t-stem is also found.
The -S- in Greek is preceded only by -a- and -t- :
<f)vydf;, €X7rt9.* Latin makes no such distinction.
Latin unaccented -a- and -e- would be confused
with -i- (§§ 159, 161), but we find besides -i- which
arises in this way in cuspi-s, lapis, etc., -^- in
merc€s, -U- in pecu-d-is (gen. § 50), -u- in palu-d-is.
349. Stems in -k- (-A- and -q-). In all cases
there is some authority for an -o-stem

, ., _ ^ ^ ^ Guttural stems.

beside the consonant stem. Compare

dXcoTnyf (stem HopBk-) with Skt. lOpdfd-s,^ fieipa^

^ The qaantity of the vowel in the antepenult is strange ; hence
Wackemagel ingeniously contends {Dehnungages^ d. gr. Composita,
pp. 44 ff.) that the forms are originally compounds from the root
*od- of 0^1;, odor, etc.; thus Sv-dtdrit "incense-scented" ; the suffix
in time becoming as colourless as the English -ly (§ 288). Words
of sense -perception are used metaphorically in most languages,
e.g, savour in English. Kiedermann, a pupil of Wackemagel, now
affirms the same origin for the suffix -ulentus (§ 286) in Latin
(LF. X. pp. 242 ff.) ; vinolentua "smelling of wine" (cp. Cic. in
Pis. 18), temuleTUuSf etc.

' ikwlt is a modification of an original -i-stem. Cp. ace of
compound €ik\in-p and Old Latin volup (neut. of -i-stem for
*volupe),

^ See however Darbishire, Proceedings of Cambridge Philological
Society for 1893, p. 3. {Itelliquiae PhUologieae, pp. 90 ff.)

350 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 349

(stem ^meruxq-) with Skt. maryakd-s, Lat. aenex
(stem *seneq-) with Skt. sanakdrs. Lat. cervix is
presumably for ^er-vtc-s and being thus from a
root in -k has no -A-suffix.

350. Stems in -g- {-g- and -gr-). These are very
doubtful in apira^ and Trrc/juf. The latter is
supposed by some ^ to be developed from a neuter
nom. suffix in -^-, cp. Skt. asrg " blood " : the origin
of the forms in -ng- in Greek is not clear : ff^Xa-y^,
aaXiT'ty^, Xdp-vy^. This suffix has been specialised
in Greek for words conveying "the notion of
hollowness," at any rate in the forms -iry^ and -vy^,
(Tvpuy^ " pipe," airfjXvy^ " cave." ^

351. ii Stems in spirants. Here only stems

which end in -s need be considered.

The suffixes with -8 play an important
part in the Indo-G^rmanic languages. The varying
forms of the simple -s-suffix may all be explained
as ablaut forms of one stem, but in practice different
grades have been specialised in different significa-
tiona (1) The forms -ds, -Ss have been specialised
for the masculine and feminine forms of the
nominative, while -os, -es are found as neuters.
Compare atSw, ^o)? (Hom. = *aj^5s), Latin arbos,
honos with yiv-o^ Lat. gen-us. (2) The forms in
-Is have been further specialised for the adjectival
forms, while -6)9, -09 are kept for the substantive
forms ; cp. '^€i;8«79, yjrevSi^ with -^€1)809 ; Svafievq^,
Bva-fiepi^ with /Lt€j/09. The only trace of this which

' Cp. Meringer, BeUragt zur OeschichU der indogermaniachen
Dedinationj p. 6.

« Bloomfield, A.J.P. xii, p. 27.

— § 362 STEMS ENDING IN SPIRANTS 351

is left in Latin is degener by the side of gen-us,
and even here it is more likely to be a late forma-
tion after the verb degenero than an early form.
The adjective vetus is in origin a substantive
(§ 55, n. 1). Analogy has led frequently to the
generalising of one grade of the stem at the expense
of the other gradea Thus cdBm makes as its
genitive not *£u8€(<r)o9 but (u8o(<r)o9, alhov^;. In
Latin this is more frequent: honOris for *honeris
from *hone8-is with the 5 of the nom. ; arboris for
*arbeS'i8 ; temporis for *tempes'i8, cp. the case-form
temperi isolated as an adverb. (3) A weaker form
of the suffix, where the vowel is represented by
" schwa " 9, is probably to be found in such nouns
as the Greek Kpia^; when compared with the Skt.
hravi^. But it is noticeable that most of the Greek
stems in -a? have some type of -n-stem in connexion
with them ; compare Kepa^ with Latin corn-u Eng.
horn (§ 106), and in Greek itself with Kapa, Kapvo-^,
and KpcuT'ireiov. Kepa^ may therefore represent
*hern'8. yip-a^ and yrjp-a^ (both connected with
yip-av) may also show traces of -n-, but here the
stem should end in -nt-. (4) To the weakest of all
the forms of the stem, viz. -5-, it seems other suffixes
were occasionally added ; hence probably the origin
of the Greek Kop-a-rf, "temple" (from the same
root as xip-a^) and 8of-a ( = *8o/c-<r-a),^ etc., cp.
Lat. noxa from the same root as nec-o.

352. Closely connected with this suffix are
two other suffixes -j^s- and -ifes-. -jfes has been

* This form however with -« might represent *6oK-TiS. (f-suffix,
§ 374).

352 HISTOR y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 362

specialised in the comparison of adjectives, where by
itself it frequently forms the compara-
tive, and, in combination with such
other suffixes as -to- and -mo-, the superlative.

Thus, unlike as they seem, ekdaato (aoc.) and
leviorem (*^«(x)Jfi^*") ^^^ ^^^ ^^d the same in origin :
iXAaaco represents *€'Xax'ipa-m, ^eKaaao-a, while
leviOrem like datdrem has taken over the long form
of the suffix from the nominative. In Greek,
however, a confusion has arisen between -s and -n
stems ; hence such forms as ikda-a-op-of;, ^ifyvo^,
etc. irkeiow; ( = *pU-i}p8-es) may be compared with
the old Latin form pleores in the Hymn of the
Arval Brothers, though the two are not in all
respects identical. The suffix appears as -ps, -jps
in nominative forms, as -joa- in accusative forms.
Traces are also found of the -je«- type, and it is
frequent in the weak form -is- : ^Xtt;jf-^<r-To-9, Lat.
pluri-mU'S, O.L. ploirumo-s^ (from ^plO-^-mmO'S).
Cp. Eng. next, O.H.G. ndhisto "neighbour." The
Greek stems, like Homeric KaWlov, Attic KaXXiov,
have in the suffix the weak form of this stem -i«-
followed by a suffix in -n (§ 357). A similar
combination of these suffixes for the same purpose
is found in the Germanic languages (-iz-an-, Goth.
hardiza " harder," gen. Jiardizins) and elsewhere.^

^ Cp. Sommer, LF, xi. pp. 216 ff.

^ See Thurneysen {K.Z, 83, pp. 661 ff.)» who coojectures that
the variety of the quantity in the -i- arose from the confusion of
the stems, { helonging to the inflexion in -ti, i to that in -s (cp. Skt.
svddiyas' "sweeter"). This, however, does not carry us far. The
Vedic san-yaa- "older," nav-yas- "newer," tav-ytu- "stronger/*
etc., which are replaced ultimately by nav-iyaa-, tav-iyas-, etc.,

§ 363 STEM OF PERFECT PARTICIPLE ACT 353

353. The suffix- jfes- was speciaKsed forthe perfect
participle active. In the nominative this suffix ap-
peared as -jf55, -jfos, in the accusative as -^s-. Its
weakest form was in -i«-, from which
a feminine form was made bj adding the
suffix -i (-i^-). In Greek the suffix in -j^os is re-
tained, but confused in the masculine and neuter
forms with -^-stems (cp, ei&o? with eiSo-ro^j, a
confusion possibly arising from the existence of a
stem in -jfo^- for some cases (cp. Groth. weit-wod-
" witness") parallel to the stem in -'ffos} The
type IBvla (Homeric yvvcuK€<; Fipya FiSvlai) repre-
sents the original feminine form (Skt. vidu^l) with
the weak root-syllable. In Latin this suffix has
entirely disappeared, for the suggestion that cadaver
and papaver represent -?^- forms rhotacised has
little probability. In Oscan, however, philologists *

seem to show that originally short root syllables had the short
fonn of the suffix ; nav-yas- and avdd-iyas- being contrasted exactly
as in the Latin verb are cap-imus and aud-imus (§ 487, iii.).
Although the long form of the suffix is added to the roots with
short vowel, there is no example of the converse, and forms such
as aanyas-t which (like Lat. senior) are somewhat isolated, preserve
throughout the short form of the suffix. It is noteworthy that in
Homer the comparatives in -wv- are rare, and almost entirely con-
fined to the neuter. Some favourite examples in the grammars, as
ix^iwf and ^iiuv, are not found in Homer at all, while dLkyUav^
alffxionft KoXXUav (with one exception), and Xulunf are found only
in the neuter. The explanation offered here does not exclude
Wackemagel's suggestion {Fermischie Beitrage, p. 11} that some
of the forms are founded on -i- stems: op. koXKLw with Elean
iraXM-repo-f, and irdXXt-/uo-$, /raXXi-^cavo-r, etc.

^ Brugmann, Oriech. GhramJ § 281.

^ Following Johannes Schmidt, K,2. 26, p. 372, who first ex-
plained aipua (cp. § 164, n. 2).

2 A

354 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 353

now regard the existence of this participle as
certain^ the future perfect active being formed by
means of it. The form si'pus ( = scie'm in meaning)
is explained , as being the perfect participle active
of a verb corresponding in Oscan to Latin sapio^
the perfect in Oscan being *s^^i (cp. Lat. cwpio^
dpi), whence, with the weak form^ of the sufiSjc,
sipv^}

354. iii SuflSxes in liquids. The only liquid
suffix is -r-. As in the -5-stems there are here
many forms -Or, -ir ; -or-, -er- ; -r ; -r, and accord-
ing to some authorities -r (§§ 82, 154).

Here, as in the -5-stems, the forms in -Or, -&r
are specialised for masculine and feminine forms
with different vocalism (on the ordinary theory)
according to the position of the accent : -ir but -Or?
-or-, -er-, -r, and -r are also found in these stems ;
-or- and -er- in the accusative, -r and -r in the
weakest cases of the declension. The neuters have
"r ("H*) ^ ^'^® nominative singular : oidap, or in
some cases possibly -f, cK-dp, vB-wp,^ and they

^ Aooording to Buck, Deroskisehe Vocalismus, p. 100. Bronisch
takes it as from the strong form of the suffix, but is refuted by
BrugmaoD, BerichU der Kim, Sachs. Oes. der Wissenachaflen, 1893,
p. 188. Gk. forms like ipprry^ui (Heraclea), etc, seem to show that
the feminine form had originally -y«s-{ in the nom., -ua- in the
weak oblique cases.

' For Oscan 1=0 see Appendix C, § 661.

' In Skt. the nom. sing, of r and u stems never has the final
consonant; thus svaad, Latin saror {*sve86r), {rva la&iap. The
simplest explanation is that in the sentence the final sound was
assimilated to the first sound of the succeeding word, the origin of
Double forms (§ 287).

* Schmidt {Pluralb. p. 193} takes these forms as ooUeotire&

— § 356 STEMS ENDING IN LIQUIDS 365

carry weak forms throughout. Closely connected
with these forms are others which in some
languages show -t as the final suffix, Skt. yakrt,
Gk. fiirap, Lat. jBcur, All stems of this form
regularly show an -w-stem in the genitive: Skt.
yak-n-as, 6k. ^-a-T09 (where -a- = -w-), cp. Latin
fe-mur gen. fem-in-is. The -t- in Greek fjira-ro^,
etc., is a difficulty for which several explanations
have been offered. Of these two are more plausible
than the rest. (1) Either there was a confusion
between -n- and -nt- stems which was carried into
these forms, or (2) the suffix -tos was borrowed
from such ablatival adverbs as ck-to^, cV-to?^ (§309).
In these stems analogy produces many combinations
of the -r- and -n- forms. Thus in Latin we have
for the genitive of jecur, ^jec-in-iSy^ jec-or-is, and
jec'in-or-is, a new nominative /emen by the side of
fem-ur, and a new genitive fem-or-is. Compare
iiS-eop, vS-a-To^ with aXo^-vS-v-i] and possibly unda ;
Eng. tvat-er (Gothic gen. wat-in-s), a-K-cop makes
a-K-a-TOf; ; the Old Norse skarn (Scotch shar-n) has
a combination of both stems in the nominative.

355. The masculine and feminine forms in
-tor-, -ter- are widely specialised as nouns of the
6^ent, and along with -or- and -er- as nouns of
relationship. The latter class certainly dates from
the Indo- Germanic period. The history of the
former class is less easy to determine because very

^ Fick, BB. zii p. 7 ; Bnigm. Gfrundr. ii. § 244. Cp. Bartho-
lomae, LF. i. pp. 800 ff.

^ We must postulate the form *jecinis in order to explain
jecinoris.

356 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §365

many nomina agentis stand in close relation to verb-
forms and may frequently have been developed
within the independent life of the individual
languages. The type, however, must be Indo-
Germanic.

a. Nomina agentis}

Sta-riip y : daior

d<^TUpJ

&K'T(ap : cu:-tor
dpo-Hjp : ard'tor

6. Nouns of relationship.

Ta-Hip ipa-ter ifa-ther
Doric fM-T/jp : ma-ter : mo-ther

^-^p],fra.ter:bro^ther
^pd-TUpj

0vyd-Tfip : : daugh-ter

? f-op ' : 9or-ar : sis-ter

da-^p' : U'V-ir : 0,'E.td-eor (husband's brother)

^ In the Germanic languages this class has disappeared, the
English -er as in gardener representing the same suffix as the
Latin -drio-,

^ Explained by Hesychius as OvydniPf dp€\f/i6s. Bnigmann
{Orundr. ii. § 122) takes this as the vocative form. The nomi-
native would be i<i)p=*sjfie8-Sr, to which also corresponds the
Latin aoror (§ 201) ; sister is borrowed by English from the Norse
systir and has replaced the Old Eng. sweos-t-or. In this word the
-t' is not originaL Where s and r came together, the Germanic
languages inserted -^ between them : cp. stream from the same
root as ^ctf («re]|f-). The original Germanic nominative would thus
have been *sves6r, gen. ^svestr-s.

' From an original stem *daty^- with various ablaut forms ;
levir is an instance of popular analogy, the second syllable of the
word being erroneously connected with vtr. The number of names
of relationships which go back to the Indo-Germanic period is
strikingly large and has been the subject of investigation by
Delbriick in a treatise entitled Die Fenoandtschaftsnamen in
den indogermanischen Sprachen.

— § 356 STEMS ENDING IN NASALS 357

356. iv. Nasal suflBxes are found in -71- only;
there are no -m-suffixes used to form
new words,and the only words originally
ending in -m are the Indo-G. words for earth and
snow represented in Greek by p^^coi/ and '^mv
respectively. Final -m regularly becomes -v in
Greek, and -v is then carried throughout the
declension. For -m in these words cp. '^Qayj£Ko^
hum-US ; j(!^ifi'wv, j(€ifi'a, hiemps (with euphonic
'P')y g®^* hiem-is. Just as in the -r- and -5- stems,
gradation plays a large part, and the syllable con-
taining -71- appears as Sn, on, en, on, n, n, and
possibly n according to circumstances. As in the
-s-stems, there are various kindred suflSxes, -men-,
-jen-, -^en-, with their numerous graded forms.
Closely connected with the last mentioned are the
suffixes in -j^nt-, and by the side of -en-, -on- are
numerous forms in -ent- and -ont-. All of these
forms had apparently at one time a complete
system of gradation, the details of which are in
some respects hard to determine, but which, at all
events, was built up on the same principle as the
gradation of the -8- and -r- stems.^ It is not
necessary, to suppose that each of these -7i-suflBxes
had an independent origin. Some of them may
have arisen by a confusion of the final sound of the
root with the suflQxal element, as happens occasion-
ally in modern languages (§ 286). But at any
rate this confusion, if such it be, dates from the
Indo-Germanic period.

^ I see no probability in Bartholomae's view that the participle
of the present had originally no gradation, K,Z. 29, pp. 487 C

358^ HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §367

357. As in the -s- and -r- stems, so here the
different g^dations of the stem suffix

DiflTerent grades

In different are Specialised in different meanings.

meanings. __

Neuters appear in -w and possibly -«,
but there is no distinction parallel to that between
>/r€i;8i79, ^IrevBi^, and yjrevSo^. The -w-suffixes have
a considerable variety of meanings, the most
characteristic uses being as nomina agentis (forms
in -en-, -on-), nomina actionis {-men-, -mon-\
feminine abstracts {-{en-, -jon-), active participles
(-nt-), and descriptive adjectives {-i^ent-). It is
noticeable that comparatively few -n- stems are
found in both Greek and Latin. Latin developed
a large number of new -n-stems, especially in the
form -tidn-, a suflBx which replaced the older and
extinct -ti- (§ 368) ; cp. ^yvSy-ai-^ ( = *yu&-rL-s:) with
7io-ti-0t /Sd-ai-^ ( = *ci^m-ti-8) with con-ven-ti-o, etc.
With the suffixes -men-, -mon-, and -y^ent- Latin
combines the suffix -to-, thus forming the suffixes
-mento- (in cogno-men-tu-m, etc.) and *-y£nt-to-

*'Uenso- -onso- -Oso- (in form^onsus, for-

Latin ^wao- -dw. *^ \ J >J

mOsusy The suffix always appears as
-dso' without regard to the nature of the stem-
ending to which it is affixed, whether e.g. -a- as in
formu, -0- as in verbu-m, -n- as in fuligo (ftdiginostis).
Other forms which are much affected by Latin are
those made by adding -on- to stems ending in -g-
or -(Z-, whether such stems are simple or complex :

^ Wackemagel's theory {LF. x. p. 246), that formonsus ia
an ignorant copyist's mistake and that formoaua stands for
yorm + od-»-o« from the weak stem of odor on the analogy of
xinosua (cp. § 848, n. 1) is more ingenious than probably,

— § 368 GRADA TION IN NASAL STEMS 359

marg-o "brink" (gen. margin-is), call-g-o "mist"
(gen. call-g-in-is), card-o " hinge " (gen. card-in-is),
testU'do " tortoise " (gen. testu-din-is). But the new
combinations are treated as themselves suffixes (cp.
'ling in the Germanic languages, § 286) and make
new words : plumb-d-g-o from plunibu-m, lan-u-g-o
from lana ; alii-tvdo from altu-s, etc. The form of
the original stem is disregarded in these secondary
formations. A probable parallel to such forms are
the Greek (mostly poetical) abstracts a;)^5-7;-8-c»i/,
Ti;/c-€-8-wi/, which have sometimes derivatives again
as (fxxTf-i'Baipa, a derivative in -la from a possible
*(f>arf-€-S'WP.

358. In forms of the type (rrpa/S-wv, Krj<f)'i]v the
strong form is carried throughout the declension.
In Greek the stem -prfv in iroKvpprfve^; appears in
its weakest form in the simple substantive gen.
apv'6^ ( = *J^f ^-), which has this weak form in all
the cases existing in the literature, though Faprfv,
apijv the nom. has been found upon inscriptions^
Latin has only one word with the weakest stem in
the genitive, viz. caro " flesh " cam-is. That, how-
ever, these weak forms did exist in the primitive
Italic period is shown by other dialects: cp.
Umbrian gen. no-mn-er (with final rhotacism) with
Lat. no-min-is ( = *7W-mn-es), In all -n-stems
Latin -in- being unaccented may represent either
-on- or -en-. In old Lat. homo makes its accusative
hemonem or homdnem. The suffix -en- is apparently
to be found in the Gk. infinitive of the type ^epeti/,

^ See Searles, Lexicographical Study of Ok. Inscr. (Chicago
Univereity Studies, vol. ii) s.v. dp^y.

360 HISTOR Y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 358

now generally recognised as a suffixless locative
parallel to the Skt. -s-aw-t. If so, an -n-suffix is
added to an -5-stem, *^/j-6<7-€i/, whence *^6/j-€-€v,
<l>if>-€iv (Lesbian ^ip-rfp).

359. -men', -vwn-, -mn-, -mn- (neuter).

rip-iuav : ter-mo 'i
rip-fUL : ter-men )

KpT'/UL : eri-men
T fi 'f \ \€y4-fi€if-<u : Ze^'-tntn-t (Passive Imperat.)

In Greek and Latin some forms K€v0'fia>v, ser-
mo, etc., carry the long form throughout. The
number of parallel forms t€/j-/lm»i/, rep-fia, etc,
suggests that both forms had originally belonged to
one paradigm, and that the forms by mutual
levelling had made two separate paradigms. Cp.
TrdOo^ and irhOo^, I3d0o^ and fiivOo^, etc. The
infinitives of the type -fiep-ai are obviously old
dative forms from -men'StemQ. like various other
noun forms which are used in the verb paradigm,
they have nothing in themselves to characterise
them as either active or passive, and hence each
language is free to specialise them in its own way.
If the identification of Xeyefiepai and legimini be
correct, this form must be carefully distinguished
from legimini = \€y6fi€V0L of the present indie
passive, although the use of the former as the 2nd
pers. plural must have been occasioned by the latter.
Latin byforma The ucutcrs of this scrics have frequently
in^n.to-. ^ La^j^ byforms with the additional
suffix -to- ; cogno-men : cogno-men-tu-m. With this
may be compared Svofm and its plural ovo/iara:

S 360 STEMS ENDING IN -MEN-, -IN-, ETC. 361

but whether the -T-forms from this n-stem were
occasioned by the existence of a byform with a
-to-8uflBx, or whether from a new-formed ablatival
genitive sing, oi/o/xa-ro? the -t- was carried through-
out, is still a vexed question (cp. § 309).

360. -t«n-, -J071-, -in-, -in- (-jjn-).

The form -in- is found only in Sanskrit words
like Jo/in- " strong," in which -in- is generalised for
all casea The weak grade of the -jcn-suflBx which
survives in Greek is -In-, a form which according
to Brugmann ^ is still found in h^k^-U (gen. ScX^-
lv-o^\ a/e-T'U (gen. a/cT-ti/-09), and others with nom,
in -Z9 or -Zj/. In some words the ordinary feminine
suflftx -a- (-17-) has been added. Brugmann com-
pares 8(D-T-tv-rf by the side of &5-Tt-9 (cp. § 27)
with Lat. da-tio by the side of dos. In Latin the
form -4071' is carried throughout the declension
except in the river-name Anio ; Oscan and Umbrian,
however, preserve the weaker form in the declension.
In neither Greek nor Latin is the suffix -uov-y Lat.
-iOn-, very common. In Latin there are many
more words with this suffix in ordinary use than
there are in Greek, but, notwithstanding, 'tidn-
overshadows the more simple ioxm,'^^^^^^Qf,^^,
In Greek the commonest words with stems in Greek
this suffix indicate " dwellers in " or " descendants
of " : oi/pav-icove^, Kpovloov, " dwellers in heaven,"
" son of Kronos.** There are also a few words of a
diminutive or contemptuous meaning (jioKclk-Imv ^

1 Orwidr. ii. § 116.

^ Both this and itiKaxp-luw (Arist Pox, 198) are probably comic
patronymics ; op. son of a gun, son of a sea-cook.

362 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §360—

"weakling," Aristoph. Ecd. 1058) parallel to Latin

forms like komunc-io pumil-io, etc In Latin the

Buflfix is of more general signification. Besides the

diminutives above mentioned, forms in

and Latin. ^ , ,. i-

-tdn- are found as ordinary masculine
substantives: r«5^i-o "rope-maker" (re8ti'8),centuri-0y
etc. There are also feminine collectives or abstracts :
leg-io, opin-io ; cp. reg-io "a stretch of country."
Some have a parallel neuter form in -jp- in use :
corUag-io : contag-ium ; obsid-io : ohsid-ium. The
sufi&x 'tidn- is very common. It has ousted the old
-^i-suffix (§ 368) and is freely used to form new
abstracts: cp. stati-m from a nominative ^stati-s
with statiOn-em. The beginnings of this must date
very far back, because by the side of the old ace.
parti-m, \a,teT part-em, stands a stem with a different
root-grade, por-ti-o, ace. por'ti'&n-em.

361. -jfen-, -j^n-, -tin-, -un- (-J^n-).

The forms of this suffix are parallel to those of
-j^n-stems. The suffix is rare in the classical
languages. In Greek, apart from a few forms like
cdoiv ( = cU'Fcov, cp. Lat. ae-vo-m), iri-wv " fat " (cp.
Skt. pl'Van-), it survives possibly only in the
infinitive forms hovvai, etc. ( = So-Fiv-ai, cp. BvFavoi
found in the Cyprian dialect: Skt. dd-van-i)}
Brugmann finds the weak form -un- in (f^peara,

* The origin of the forms dvifuhp ** men's chamber," Ix-nhv
* * stable," etc., is not clear. Forms like tUBwa, are probably not old,
but later coinages from verb forms like edOivot. Even some of the
forms given above are doubtful. In alFdnf and aevo-m, )f may
possibly belong to the root. Fick holds that in 8of ^oi, ]i was
part of the root in the Indo-0. period, comparing Latin c^uam,
etc

— § 362 STEMS ENDING IN -UN-, -ENT-, ETC, 363

ireppara (=^*<f>f}7j'Fa'Ta, Horn, (f^p^qara, *ir€p-Fa-Ta,
forms with extended stems ; cp. ovo-iia'

_. \ Forms in •yii>to.

ray Lat. cognovien-ta, § 359).

362. -ent-f -ont', -nt-.

This suffix has always formed all active parti-
ciples except those of the perfect. In Greek such
passive participles as are formed on the analogy of
active forms, viz. 1st and 2nd aor. passive, also take
this suffix; Xv-d-evT-, <f>av-€VT', There are also
some nominal forms of the same type, Gk. oSojk,
yip'cov, Lat. dens. In Greek the only forms which
retain the exact phonetic representation of the
original suffix -ont-s are oBov^, and participles like
Bov^ : the ordinary participial and nominal form of
the nominative seen in <f>€po)v, yiptov, etc., must be
borrowed by some analogical method from the -en-,
-on- stems.^ That there was a close connexion
between the two series is shown by the
transference of stems from the one series -»- and -n/-
to the other, cp. Xecov, Xcovr-o? with
Lat. leo, leOn-is and with the fem. TJcuva ( = ''^leunja),
OepuTTcov, OepdirovTo^ with depairaivcu In Latin,
with rare exceptions, weak forms (in -n-) or -en-
forms have been carried throughout the declension ;
but ienSf gen. eunt-is ( = *ijrnt-8, *ei'Ont'es). The
neuter of the participle and adjective in Latin
presents some difficulty, fereris ingens (neut.)

^ Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 198. Solmsen following Bartholomae
contends that ^fnaif arose from *^p<aifT before a pause, at a time
when the law that a long vowel followed by two consonants must
be shortened had not yet come into force ; in other positions *<l>€poy
arose later for the masc., but owing to its ambiguity was dropped
(BB. xvii. p. 338).

364 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §362 —

cannot unless by analogy (cp. audax) have the
Neuter of lAtin ^^^^ -s-suffix. Thumeysen's explana-
-n^participiee. ^^^^ 1 jg ^Yiolt in Latin final -tU became
'718. Where final -nt is found as in the verb/erwn^,
etc., it, according to this theory, represents -ntL
363. The ablaut variations are well preserved in
Gradations in Sanskrit. In the classical languages
.n^iteniB. much morc levelling has taken place, so
that only a few relics of the original system are
preserved. In Greek beside &Vy Svro^ we find in
Doric Ivre^ = *8Snt-e8 and the feminine laaaa and
possibly Homeric fieraaaai,^ where -aaaa = *snt'ia ;
in Latin, besides iens euntis, we have apparently in
80718 and prae8e7i8 two different grades of the parti-
ciple of the substantive verb.^ Presumably as in
-r-stems the original declension ran in the simple
and compound forms thus :

Nom. *8ints *prai-8ont8
Gen. *8nt-^ *prai-8nt-08

The English participle is of the same origin :
<f>€p-ovT-: O.E. her-e7id'. The sufl&x in the parti-

* Archiv fUr lateinischen Lexicographies v. p. 676, following as
regards final -nt Bugge in K.Z. 22, pp. 385 ff. Many other
suggestions have been made to account for these forms in -n«, the
most reoent by Ehrlich {I.F, xi. pp. 299 ff.), who endeavours to
prove that they are noun forms, the nom. pL of -eTi-stems, which
like legimini (§ 28) have become incorporated in the paradigm of
the verb.

' ClassuxU JUvieWt iiL p. 4. Through the influence of other
parts of the verb, the rough breathing belonging to 6y, etc, has
disappeared.

' For this explanation, which does away with the difficulty of an
''accented sonant nasal" (cp. p. 148, n. 2), see Streitberg, LF. i.
p. 98.

§ 366 STEMS IN VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 365

ciple berende, etc., is found changed to -inge first in
Lajamon in the beginning of the thirteenth century.

364. '^erU'f -^nt-.

This suffix is found only in the Aryan, Greek,
and Italic groups of the Indo-Germanic languages.
It is used as an adjectival suffix to indicate " pos-
sessing," " endowed with," as in 'xapL-ei^ " endowed
with charm." In Latin, as already mentioned, it
appears only in combination with -to- in the
adjectives ending in -dsits. The Greek masculine
form as in 'xapC-ei^ represents by -€t9 original -ji^nt-s.
The feminine j^apl-eaaa represents origi- Gradation in
nal -Ji^nt-ia which should appear as ■^^^^^^^*'
-aaaa, but through the influence of the masculine
the vowel has been changed to -e-. The stem
gradation in the oblique cases has also disappeared
except in the locative (dative) plural 'xapL-eai
( = *-j^n^-s-i) which has however changed its vowel
like the other cases.^ With this change of vowel
compare wot-fiiai for *7roi-fjLaai, <f>p€ai for <l>paat
(which survives in Pindar).

365. Suffixes in vowels and diphthongs are
much the most numerous class. They stems in voweis
may be divided according to the vowel *°d diphthongs,
by means of which they are formed into (1) -i-stems,
(2) -lA-stems, (3) -l- (-I'O stems, (4) -a-stems, (5)
-o-stems. Of these the -o-stems are present in
much the greatest variety of combination, hardly
any consonant stem being without its counterpart
containing -o- as well as the consonant element.
So also, beside -t- and -u- stems there are others in

^ *Xo-pi'FeyT'ffi must have become •xapf-cwrt.

366 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §366

-JO- and -j^-. Moreover % and u may represent
reduced grades of such diphthongs as e\y ey,. Here
an important difference between vowel stems and
consonant stems is to be observed. In the consonant
stems the longest form of the sufi&x appears in the
nominative singular, while the weakest grade is
represented in the genitive, dative, and instrumental
But in the vowel stems the weak form frequently
appears in the nom. singular, and the stronger
grades in the genitive. Thus 7ro\-t-9 but in Tragedy
TToXeo? for *7roX€t-o9, 17S-1J-9 but i^Seo? ( = *i7S€f -09).
But what of Ionic w-o\t-o9 (gen.) and
such forms as iinrev^, jSaa-iKev^ ? In
the former case the wea^ stem is seen in the
genitive, in the latter the diphthongal form is
found in the nominative with the long form in the
genitive — Homeric ^aaCKrj'O^ ( = *^aai\rfF-o^),
whence by metathesis of quantity fiaaCkiw^ in
Attic The origin of these stems in -cu- is further
complicated by the fact that in some dialects ^ they

^ In Arcadian and Doric. Wackernagel {K,Z, 24, pp. 295 ff.
and 27, pp. 84 ff.) attempts to connect with Skt. words ending in
-ayA-y ofvayHk-y etc. There seems more probability in Torp's
conjecture {Den Orcteake NoniinalJUxion, p. 102) that the Greek
forms in -ev- are identical with original -i^-stems : cp. 4>op€i^ with
Skt. bharH', etc. Brugmanu (LF. ix. pp. 869 ff.) thinks they
start from verbals in -Fo- from -ioy- verbs: *^/)-i7-fo-s like
^P'Ti-rb-i. Hence *«pop7)F{o)Sf 4>ope6s with the same shortening of
the diphthong as in Zei/f. Schmidt, starting from the forms
ipvyadtUa (Att. ^uyaS&jia) and Kariapalia (Att. KaOiep€i^), found in a
newly discovered Elean inscription, argues {Berickte d. Berlin,
Akademiey I 1899, pp. 802 ff.) that these forms can arise only from
'cF-jM when -cF- is a weak grade of -ijf - and not a shortening such
as is x>ostulated in Ze^, firugmann's argument (cp. also his

— § 366 STEMS ENDING IN -I- 367

have a byform of the nominative in -179. The
type represented by fiaaCKev^ seems confined to
Greek.

366. (1) Stems in -i- seem to have been some-
what rare in early times. Some common
names of animals go back to the original
language (as 6k. 6-1^ (3f -f- 9) : Lat. ov-i-s : Eng. ewe),
and a few other words such as Lat. auris (Lith.
avs-i'S), In Greek the only neuter is Saae
{ = *oK-i-€), a dual form. In Latin neuter forms
are hardly more numerous; except mare all seem
compounds or neuter adjectives used as substantives,
e.g. prae-saepe, ovlle, animal (for ^animcUe), In
Latin great confusion has arisen between confusion of
original -s-stems, -i-stems, and -t^-stems; ^stemi'JS ul^
forms like pkhes and sides have neuter ««^«tantive..
-5-stems parallel to them in Greek, if it be true
that they represent irXijOo^ and I809 respectively.
The stems in -ie- in Latin have, contrary to the
practice of other languages, taken a final -s, so
that a nominative singular in -is may represent an
original consonant stem, an -i-stem or an -i^-stem
(cp. § 374). Consonant stems and stems in -ti-
became confused, because the strong stress accent on
the first syllable made the second syllable of trochaic
disyllabic words disappear, when -t- preceded by
another consonant is found in the stem. Thus
*m,orti'S ( = Indo-G. *mrtis) becomes mors, *parH-s
becomes pars, etc., and a new ace form is made
parallel to those of genuine consonant stems, ^mentis

Orieeh, Oram,* pp. 572 f.) is more probable than Schmidt's, but
Neither view is quite conyincing.

368 HISTOR Y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 366

mens. Hence the new form part-em beside the old
parti-m now only retained as an adverb. On the
other hand, cutiSypotis, ratis, etc., remain; but in the
compounds intercvs (^inter-cuti-s), compos, impos,
etc., with accent on the first element, these forms
also are reduced.

367. Greek has confused its adjectival forms in

-*- with -rf-stems: iSp*? ace. iSpi-Sa

Confusion of ^^rxv 1 .1 t • 1

other litems with (Soph. Ft, 889), while Latin has a very

•i-stems in Greek , ^ , i ,. . . .

and Latin acyec- large number 01 adjectives m -i- : corn-
is, rvd-i-sjurp-i-s, etc. A great portion
of the Latin -t-adjectives are however due to the
fact that -i^-adjectives made their feminines in -l-
(-1^-) : Indo-6. *8y>ddu-s masc., *8](ddyr-l fem. (cp.
iJSiJ-?, tfBeZa). Latin has generalised the -i-forms;
hence stidvi-8 for both masculine and feminine.

368. The sufl&x -ti- is more frequent in the

early period of most languages than

.^-suffixes. ,., ./*, T-r. ^

the simple -t-suffix. In Latm and
English it soon died out. In Greek it often
appears as -ai- (§ 133), and is generally added to a
root in the weak grade. But as the accent is
sometimes on the root, sometimes on the suffix,
probably the form of the root and suffix originally
varied accordingly. In Latin, disyllabic forms are
often confused with consonant stems (see above), and
the place of this suffix is taken by the lengthened
form -tion- (§ 360). For examples cp. ^25 and 27.

369. Closely connected with this suffix are the
Suffixes in ^wo suffixcs -tdt- OT -tdti- and -tut- or

.UU- and 4iU: .^^^^_ ^^^^ ^g^^j^ ^j^^ doublc fOHUS of

the suffixes arise from the confusion between -i-

— § 370 STEMS ENDING IN -I- 369

and consonant stems. The suffixes seem to arise from
a combination of 'td- and -tu- with 4%-} In Greek
'tuti is not found, and there are but few common
forms in Latin : juventvs, senectus, virtuSy servitus.
Compare with this suffix -tudon- in servitudo, etc.

370. The other -i-suffixes are but poorly de-
veloped in most languagea They are

^ & o .^ other -i-sufflxea.

-ri-, 4i', -^mi', -ni-. In Latin, however,
-ri- and -K- develop extensively, -ri-; Ste-pt-^:
Lat. oc-ri'8 (cp. deer through *dcr8 from *dcris).
4i' is not found in Greek; but cp. Tny-Xt-zco-?,
TTj'Xl'KO'^, which have an additional suffix, with
Latin qud4i'8 and td4i-s. According to Brugmann ^
the suffix -all- so frequent in adjectives springs by
analogy from these original forms. This suffix
appears occasionally as -dr- by dissimilation when
an -/-sound has already occurred in the word;
hence palmd-ri-s for *palmd4i'8. In Latin more-
over many words appear with the -/t-suffix which
have 40' in other languages: cp. o/Lta-\o-9, Lat.
simi4i-8. -mi- appears in a few words Oe-fn-^ (rt.
*0e' of TL'drf-fu), <^-/At-9, Lat. ver-mi-s.^

^ Benfey regarded -tdti- as an independent word from the root
*km-f thus signifying "extension" (L. Meyer, Ferg, Gramm, ii.
p. 632). A similar view regarding -fjofp- in irot-/iT>v and -nap, -rrip
has been propounded recently by Prellwitz (Etymolog, W'&rterbuch
d. griechischeii Sprache, 8, v. drfA-^yf and BB. xix. pp. 306 S.). If
Benfey's explanation of 'tdti- could be accepted we should have in
d¥8p6-T7i$ and civi-tas parallels to the English suffixes (really
complete words) in inan-hood, cUizen-sikvp. Greek, which does not
lose its vowel sounds, seems to support -tM- as the original form :
op. vtb-rrp with Lat. novi-toB, * Orundr, ii. § 98.

' Stolz, Hist, Or, p. 496. Meringer attempts to treat these forms
as an amalgamation of suffixes {Beitrdgef p. 3).
2 B

370 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §370

-m- is very rare in Greek ; cp. /eXo-w-^,
Lat. du-ni'S with an unexplained difference in
the root - syllable, Lat com-mu-ni-s, ig-ni-s,
and some others, om-ni-s probably represents
*op'ni'S}

371. (2) The suffix -w- was employed originally
to make both substantives and adjec-
tives. It is not used as a secondary
suffix. The feminine was made in -i- (-i^-), and in
Latin all the adjectives have become -i-stems
(§ 367). In compound adjectives a trace of the
original stem sometimes remains, as in cxu-pediu-s
connected with d>Kv-^, and in genu-ini (sc denies)
"cheek-teeth," cp. 761/U-9. -w-stems are of all
genders, and the root-syllable appears in different
grades. For the relation in Greek between -u- and
Variations in ''^^' stcms scc § 365. The sufiix -u-

-tt-stema. appears also both as long and as short ;
7r^u-9 but 6<f>pv'^. The form of the genitive in
Greek --z^-stems seems to vary according to the
quantity of the -v-; hence Trtyj^eo? (replaced in
Attic by TTiJ^^e©?) but o^pvos. The Attic forma
7r?y;^€G)9, aoreo)? are analogical Homer has only
the genitive in -€09, which is preserved in Attic in
the adjectives — 17S609, etc. In Latin many -u-
stems vary in the dative and ablative plural
between -w- and -i- forms, the syllable being un-

^ It seems that om-ni-s was originally a substantive, " Mneas,"
' ' plenty." It is probably connected with the root of op-s^ op-timu-Sf
etc. Lid^n {Studien z. altind, u. vergleiehende SprachgeschichU,
p. 73), on the ground of the original meaning, would connect with
a root *embh' seen in 6k. &4>evos "wealth," 0. Jr. imbed "plenty,"
"crowd," O.H.G. impi "swarm."

— § 374 STEMS ENDING IN -U- 371

accented. The relation between 701/1; and Lat.
genu is difficult to explain.^

372. Of the suffixes composed of a consonant
and -U'y 'tU' is the most important. It

is commoner in Homeric than in later
Greek, where it ceased to be productive, but is
widely developed in Latin in the form -dtu- to
make abstract substantives, especially in the sense
of function or office; consvlatvs, principatvs, etc.
The infinitive forms called supines are cases of -tvr-
substantives formed from verb stems (§ 529).
The ordinary Latin substantives in -tu- are all
masculine ; the corresponding Greek forms such as
l3p(o-Tv-<:, eS-iy-Tv-?, etc., are all feminina The
neuter forms aa-Tv, <f>l'Tv have no parallel in
Latin. Forms in -tu- rarely occur from the same
roots in Greek and Latin. Compare, however,
?-Tt;-9 ( = f *-Ti;-9), Lat. vi-tu-s ; dp-rv-^, Lat ar-tus.

373. Brugmann cites as other -w-suffixes -nu-
CKiyvv'^, cp. Lat. pi-nil's), -ru- (Sax-pv, ^ ^

\s Til . o*» ov other -u-sufflxes.

oaKpv'fia, Lat. lacn-ma for ^dacru-ma *),

and -lu' {Orj-Xv-^ from *dA^- " suck," lAi. fi4-are).

374. (3) The suffix -i- and -i^- was largely
used to form feminines from existing
masculine stems. The original form

of the suffix and the relations between the -l- and

^ Johannes Schmidt (PluralbUdwngenj p. 50) contends that final
short -u was dropped in Latin like final short -i, and that the
long -u is introduced later by using the collectiye plural instead of
the singular.

^ The reading dacrvmia for letcrumia in Ennius' epitaph nemo
me dacnimis decoret has no ancient authority, but is an emendation
made by Bergk.

372 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §374

-t>- forms are by no means clear, and though much
has been written on the subject in recent years no
certain conclusion has as yet been reached. The
suffix appears in the nominative in Sanskrit as -f
((fern "goddess" fem. to divas, Indo-6. *dei]fO-8\
but in Greek as -la : rihela, Bepairaiva, oi<ra, Boreipa,
aKrjOeia representing respectively ^^qBeF-ia, ^OepaTry-
UL, *sont'}a, *BoT€p--ifiiy ^aXTfOea-'icu In Latin it
appears in the great majority of the forms of the
fifth declension : ac-ii-s, spec-iB-s, etc. But here
the restoration of the original form is complicated
(1) by the fact that these stems have assumed a
final -5 on the analogy of such stems as are included
in the third declension, db-iSs, etc. ; and (2) because
a number of such words have byforms in -ia, the
regular representation of original -ja, cp. luxur-ie-s
and luxur-ia, etc. But as the suffix -jo- seems to
stand in ablaut relation to the suffix -i-, so -id-
may possibly like -ii- have a weak grade of the
form -2-. Forms with long -i- in Latin are found
only when another suffix follows, as in mc-tti-x
fem. to vic'tor ; cp. ho-Ttip and Bo-revpa, Some
suppose that -id in the Greek nominative may
have come from the accusative form -uiv and
supplanted the older -Z-,^ others consider -mi the
older form, et adhuc sub jvdice lis est In the
adjectives Latin has added -s to the feminine forms,
which thus become confused with other -i-stems.
Thus sudvi'S is properly the etymological equivalent
of rjSela, although it comes to be treated as an
-i-stem and used as such in all genders (§ 367).

' Brugm. Qrundr. ii. § 109.

§ 376 STEMS ENDING IN -O- AND -A- 373

37 S (4, 5). The -o- and -a- steins cannot be
separated, the -a forms having been

^ . . ° ^- and -d- stems.

used as feminines to the -o-stems from
the proethnic period (§ 291). These sufi&xes are
more frequent than any others. The -o-suflBix is,
indeed, so widely extended that the question has
often been raised whether it ought not more properly
to be treated as part of the root than as a suffix.
And, as has already been mentioned, there seems
to be no consonant suffix which has not an -o-form
by the side of it, and even root nouns have
parallel -o-forms. According to this theory the
forms with -o- are the earlier. Thus from an
original *p4do-8 (cp. Skt. padd-m neut.) there came
a form *pe6fe, Lat. pBs with a " sentence-doublet "
*pod'S Doric ww ; from an original H^go-s (cp. Gk.
\070-9) *Ug-s, Lat. lex; from an original *bh4ro-s
(Skt. -bhard', Gk. -0o/)o-9) ^hher-s, Gk. i^(i>p ; from
participial forms *dhe-to-8, *hhS}^tos came ^dhit-s,
bheyi-Sy Gk. 0i]<; " free labourer," </>«? " man." ^

376. Apart from the distinction between -0-
and -a- stems to indicate gender, a uai^of-o-and
distinction which, as we have seen -^-^^^^
(§ 293), is not fully preserved in the classical
languages, the most common values of -0 -stems
are (1) as class names (common nouns), (2) as
adjectives ; the most common of -a-stems is as root
abstracts.

* Torp, Den Oraeske Nominalflexion, pp. 1-18 (see § 344, note).
The same theory with certain modifications is held by other
writers, and is the foundation of the article by Streitberg which is
summarised in the note following § 265.

374 HISTORY OF SOUN FORMATION §376

Ok. Lat Eng.

(1) olc-o-f : vU-n-t (| 17fi^ n.)
^iry-^ : fag-u-B

tvy-h-w : Jug-u-m
^vy-^i : /ug-a

(2) »^.o.f\ : fnov-u-s i'ildO)
pi-o-w y : 4 nov-u-m

m-a ] : Inop-a

-tciel: (borrowed from Latin)
heech (cp. § 160, n. 1)
you

In Greek there is a considerable number of
words ending in -a where the form cannot be
explained as arising bj epenthesis from the suffix
-m discussed in § 374. Such words are SxavOa,
iiatra, roKfia, etc. In these some authorities
recognise a weaker form of the suffix, viz. -9, which
originally appeared where the preceding syllable
bore the accent.^ But the analogy of words like
ri/cToiva, Boreipa, rpdire^a, alaa, which had the
-f- (-t^-) suffix in a disguised form, undoubtedly
influenced the a-forms and led to new formations
like irpvfiva beside wpvfivi], etc

377. The combinations of -0- with a consonant
may be taken in the same order as the consonant
stems.

Original -bh + 0- is foimd developed to a small
extent in Skt. and Greek, much more
widely in Letto-Slavonic. In Latin it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish this suffix from
original -dho- (§ 380); coluniba probably contains
'bhd- ; mor-JyU'S may equally well represent either
suffix. In Skt. and Greek this suffix is mostly
confined to names of animals ' ; Gk. eka-KJ^o-^ (where

1 Johansson, K.Z, 30, pp. 422 S.

' For this adaptation of the suffix cp. Bloomfield, A,J,P. xii
pp. 24 f.

— § 378 STEMS ENDING IN -TO- 376

a = n), €pi<f>o-^, KiBdifyr} "fox." Compare, however,
te67<£L'<l)0'^ "weal," Kpora-^o-^ "temples," Kopv<f>rj
" top," and the adjective afyyv-<f>0'^ ** bright," with
a byform apf^v-f^e-o^,

378. The suffix -t + 0- is very common, especially
in participial formations. In English,
-ed as the suffix of the weak past parti-
ciple is of this origin.

Ok. Lat. £ng.

#cXi/-t6-s : in-du-tu-s : lovd (§ 167, n.)
4-7FW-T0-J : i-gno-tu-a : [un-coiUh^ (Scotch **unco")]
6-peK'T6'S : ree-tu-s : right

As the last example shows, this participle passes
easily into adjectival uses. But the suffix can also
be added directly to substantival stems, as in
a-yipaa-To-^; " unhonoured," and in Lat. in-hones-
tus from the weak stem of honor (cp.

««.-^N ^ 1 ,-r.. .1. Uses of -fo-Btema

§ 351). Greek and Latm specialise in Greek and

1 . ^ t o n 1 Latin.

the meaning of the -^o-forms from verb
stems in somewhat different ways. In Greek the
meaning corresponds rather to that of the Latin
gerundive participle, while in Latin, as in English,
the meaning is that of a past participle mainly
passive; exceptions to the passive value are such
as potus " a drunken man." So also in Greek we
have oa-TevaKTo^ " without lamentation," aSaKpvro^
" without weeping," etc.^ Forms in -to- are also

^ £ng. uncouth (negatived participial form from the alternative
root form *§en-) represents an orig. n-§ntos, closely related to Lat.
ingens ( = *n§T^) and possibly to the Homeric vrj-ydreo'S {II, ii. 43,
xiv. 186) "fresh." The Scotch ttnco, properly ** unknown,"
"strange," develops into an adverb, "very," "exceptionally."

^ For the history of the formations in -to- see Bmgmann, LF.
V. pp. 89 ff.

376 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION % 378

used as substantives ; v^-to-^ " rain," ^v-ro-v

"plant," /Spov'Tv (from fipefi-w) "thunder"; Lat.

legd'ttirs " envoy," dic-tM-m " phrase," mtU-ta " fine."

Gk. Lat £ng.
x6p-T<hs : har-tU'S : yard (O.E. geard)

379. The suffix 'to- is also found in combination
with -is- the weak form of -jes- in the superlative
suffix 'istO' (§ 352), and with -mn- and -j^n- the
weak forms of -men- and -j^n- (g 359, 361).

380. A suffix 'do- possibly found in Greek in

Kopv'ho-^ "crested lark" (Kopvshy and
m adverbs like aroixV'So'V in rows,
etc., is widely developed in Latin as an adjectival
suffix, timi'du'8, stupi-dus, soli-du-s, flor-i'du-s, etc.
Sanskrit parallel forms in -cfe- seem to show that
these words are compound forms, the second
component being the stem of the verb "give."*
Whether -do- in the Latin gerund and gerundive
participle is of this origin or not is still uncertain.
None of the numerous theories propounded in recent
years to explain these forms is altogether con-
vincing.^ The Greek patronymics in -^817-9, -ta&y-^,
etc. {Hpia/jL'LSrf'^i, Bo/oea-Siy-?), and the forms in
-*Seo9 (-tSoO?) as aSeX^-^SoO? are no doubt of the
same origin as the -cZo-stems.

381. The suffix in -ko- is certain for the Skt.
'to- and .sjto- j/uva-^-s, represented in Greek possibly

aufflxe.. ^y idKHvOo'^ (§ 104), in Latin by

* Victor Henry (Comparative Grammar of Chreek and Latin,
§ 163) takes a diiferent view.

' Cp. § 194 and § 538, n. These forms and their cognates are
very fully discussed by F. W. Thomas in the Transactions of the
Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. v. pt. 2.

— § 382 STEMS ENDING IN -QO- 377

juvencu'8, English young. Combined with -s- as
-sko- it occurs in a few words where it is obviously
identical with the -sio- suffix of verbs ^ seen in
ySo-o-^ft), pa-sco-r, etc. : Gk. /So-o-k^ " fodder," Sia-Ko-^
"quoit" ( = *Stic-(r/ico-9 from Si/c-eip "to throw");
Lat. esca { = *ed + sca); Eng. wish (O.E. wu8c=f
*j^n-sfe)-) from root in Lat. ven-vs. In Greek -tc/co-
appears as a diminutive formation : iraiB-iaKr)
"little gii'l," etc. The adjectival suffix -ish in
English, green-ish, chUd-ish, etc, is of the same
origin.

382. The suffix in -qo- is much more common,
but, apart from a few words such as
Gk. Or)'K7j and Lat. sic-cw-s"dry ( = *8%U
qO'8) literally "thirsty," is secondary and used
mainly to make adjectives. The suffix is often
expanded into the form -iqo-, -Iqo-, -Uqo-, and -aqo-,
the last three forms being shown much better by
Latin than Greek. Forms in . -q- alternate with
those in -qo- (§ 349). When a substantival form
is made with the suffix -qo- it often has ^^^^ their
exactly the same value as the more e*p»n8*ons.
simple form (cp. Lat. senex, gen. sen-is). In
combination with other suffixes as -lo-, -iOn- in
Latin, it had a contemptuous or diminutive
signification ; horaun-cU'lu-Sy homun-c-io. The
suffix in the form -iqa- is well developed in many
languages; in Greek and Latin it is appended to
stems of all kinds, di/S/o-t/co-9, dar-tKo-^s (from aa-rv),
ap'x^-iKO'f; from dpxv> ©tc. In combination with
-T- it is very frequent : aKeir-TLKo-Sy etc. Lat. has
^ Bragmann, Orundr, ii. § 90.

378 HISTOR y OF NOUN FORMA TION % 382

urh-icu-s, fvllon-icvrs, modicu-s ; as substantives
ped'iea *' fetter," vomica "running sore," etc., and
in combination with -t- : rus-ticu-s, sUva-ticU'S,
Bubst can-ttcVf-m. The English suflSx -y- in heavy,
etc., is of the same origin, primitive Germanic -iga-
representing Indo-G. -iqd'. What the secondary
-ULKo- borrowed by Latin in Corinth-

Qro6k •toico*.

ia^u-8 comes from is not clear. There
are three possibilities — (1) from -m-stems KapSuL-
k6^, (2) = 'iinqO', (3) confusion with stems in -aqo-.

383. The forms preceded by a long vowel may

be illustrated by the Latin adjectives

•^•sufflxes pre- ''

ceded by a fong am-lcu-8 / ant-Uu-s / cod-ucU'S / mev-
dcU'S; and substantives lect-lca, Nas-
Ica ; aer-uca " verdigris," lact-uca " lettuce " ; clo-dca
" sewer."

Greek has only consonantal forms parallel to the
above, and these rare. Brugmann (Orundr. ii. § 88)
cites TripB'i^ "partridge," Krip-v^ "herald," and a
few others. Latin has also many consonant stems,
mostly adjectives (none however in -uc-), fdix,
audax ; also atrOx, velOx, etc., in which some see
compounds from the root of oc-idu-s, like olvo'^,
aWo-^y etc

384. The -»-8ufl5xes are rarely extended by the
addition of an -0- or -a- suffix. When combined
with other suffixes, as they are in all probability

in the -i^s- and -ues- forms, the -s-suffix

No -fo-safflzes. ^ , , #wi^ . 1 1

stands last. There is thus not much
evidence of the type -50-, -m-} although a few
words such as the Greek 761/677 ( = *76i/6o--a, cp.

' Compare Streitberg, LF, iii. p. 349.

— § 386 STEMS ENDING IN -RO- 379

Lat. generd-re), So^a ( = ^Sox-a-a if for *So«-o--a i),
Lat. Auror-a, Flor-a ( = *aKSd8'd, *fl08-a)y are
apparently the surviving remnants of this formation.

385. The -r-stems have throughout -ro-forms
parallel to them. The forms in -0-

and -a- are therefore (a) simple -ro- -ra-,

with collateral forms -rro- -rra- and -trO" -erd-^ :

00 '

(6) 'terO' 'terd' ; (c) -tro- -trd- ; (d) -dhro- -dhrd-.

386. (a) The suffix -ro- -rd- with its byforms
makes both substantives and adjectives.

Gk. Lat. £ng.

i.y.p6'V (ace.) : ag-ru-m (ace.) : a>c-re
4'pv6'p6-p (aoc.) : rub-ru-m (ace.)

In Latin a preceding -s- changes before -ro-
-ra- into -6- ; *cer9S''ro-m (stem of Kcpa^) becomes
cerebru-m (§ 204).

-ero- : i-XevO-epo-p : lib-eru-m ; -ro- and -/ro-
side by side in lp6^ ( = ^is-ro-s) and /a/009
( = *ia-»ro-5).* The -ro-suffix is very common in
Greek and is frequently used to make new forms
from existing stems : oBvprj-po-^s, ia'j(y'p6-<;, ^o/Se-
p6'^, etc. -erO' is also used as a comparative suffix,
cp. €v-€poi, Lat. 8'Uper, Eng. over.

^ See Johansson, IC,Z, 30, pp. 422 ff.

' It is to be noticed that all stems in liquids and nasals + -o-
and -a- have forms where the consonant form of the liquid or nasal
is seemingly preceded by the sonant form. But it is not easy in all
cases to decide whether the preceding vowel belongs to the suffix.

' The Attic form UpAi is not clear. Cp. Brugm. Grundr. ii.
§ 74, n. Moreover from ^is-ro-s we should expect *Ippoj in Aeolic
(Smyth, loniCy p. 271), so that tpln may possibly be, as Mulvany
contends (J, P. 26, p. 141), for *ai-ro-a, from the rt. of //«£$ ('IXioj
Ipf/l **wall-boand Uios"), and thus a different word from lapin.

380 HISTOR Y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 387

387. (6) 'tero', 'terd', which seems rather a
combination of the -to- (-^a-) suflSx with -ro- than
like 'trO' a parallel formation to -ter-, is used
specially as the suffix of the comparative and of
pronouns which express an alternative. The suflBx
in the pronouns in Latin generally appears in the
weak form ; Vr-tru-m but ai'teru-m. The adverbial
forms from the comparative stem have also the
shorter form ex-tra, ci-tra, etc. ; cp. ex-teri (masc.
pL), ci'ter-ior. In Latin the other comparative
suflSx 'jfis is added to -tero- where it occurs in a
comparative sense in-ter-ior, etc. ; co^ipare also the
sufl&xes in the reverse order in ap-ia-repo-^, sin-is-ter.
Some forms of this combination in Latin are found
also as substantives, mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, Li
Greek the poets often added this comparative
suffix to substantive stems : ficuriXevrepov {Od. xv.
533), ypvatoripa (Sappho, Fr. 122, Bgk.), "Apeuo^;
o-rpaTLcoTepoL^ (Alcaeus,-?V. 29, Bgk.), and in Sophron
as a jest irpo^drov irpofidrepov, olb<s olorepov {Fr.
96, Ahrens).

iv-repo-v : in-ter-iar : cp./ttr-iA«r
xd-TepO'p : [U'tru-m^] : whe-ther

Compare also the pronominal adjectives rffU-
T€po-^y eta, with nos-ter, ves-ter.

388. (c) The suffix 'tro- (-trd-) is found most
frequently as a neuter and in the making of class
names (common nouns). Gk. ^epe-rpo-v, Lat. fere-
tru-m ; apo-rpo-v, ard-tru-m (modified after the verb

^ The relation (if any) of this stem to that of xh-rcpo-v and
whether is still unexplained.

— § 390 STEMS ENDING IN -LO- 381

stem); \eK-Tpo-v, Scotch lach-ter} For feminines
compare yi-Tpa " pitcher," Lat. mvlc-tra " milking
pail." In equeS'ter,pede8'ter, etc., this sufi&x (changed
to the -i- declension) is found as a secondary
adjectival suflSx : ^eqtLet-tri-, *pedet-tri, etc.^

389. (d) The sufSx -dAro-, -dAra- has arisen like
the English suffix -ling (§ 286) from a mistaken
division of the word. It is found in the classical
languages and Slavonic, but not in Sanskrit. The
meaning is the same as that of -tro- -trd-. There
are, however, some masculine forms. Gk. oke-
Opo'^ "ruin" is used along with Maxeh^v by
Demosthenes almost as an adjective. In Latin
cre-ber is an adjectival form of the same origin.
Feminine forms illece-bra, dold-hra, etc., are found in
Latin. But the majority of the words are neuter :
Gk. KXp'OpO'V "bar," cp. Lat. crl-bru-m (Kpl'vco,
eemo) " sieve." Some of the forms are abstracts :
arepyrf'Bpo'V (mostly in plural), pro-hru-m, if from
this source (cp. § 391, n. 2).

The forms iji -Uo- and -dhlo- seem in many cases
to be mere varieties of -tro- and -dhro- produced
by dissimilation.

390. The suffixes in -lo- are of the same types
and have much the same meaning as

, •Zo-sulllxos.

those in -ro-. There is, however, no
series of forms in 4- only by the side of them.
In Latin -tlo- becomes -do- (often -cvlo-), peri-clu-m
and peri-culum, etc. This suffix must be carefully

^ As in midden-liiehter " place for the dunghill."
' It is, howeyer, equally possible to attach these forms to -tero-
(§ 887).

382 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §390

distinguished from the compound suffix -qo + lo-
which also appears in the classical period as -ct*Zo-,
cor-cU'lii-m, vxor-cu-la, etc. Plautus, however,
distinguishes them in most cases, never shortening
'CO + lo' to one syllable, and generally making -cZo-
disyllabic only for metrical reasons, as at the end
of a line or hemistich.^ -cto- is sometimes changed
by dissimilation after another -/- to -cro- ; lava-
cru-m, lu'Cru-m (cp. Gk. Xv-rpo-v).

'lo- irt-Xo-f : pi-lu-8 : Ifel-t

A-Xd (Doric) : sd-la^ i seU-le

-elo- w€<thikn : neh-vJa : Germ, nebel (O.H.G. fubuZ)

The suffix is very frequent in both Greek and
40- as a diminu- Latin as a Secondary suffix with a
tiveaufflx. gijghtly depreciatory or diminutive
signification, like -ish in sweet-ish, etc Thus
7ra;j^v-Xo-9 " thickish," Lat. frigid-uLu-s " coldish."
In the later history of the language, these secondary
formations often usurp the place of the primary
words. This is the origin of fo^ns like bellus
(*len'lu'8, cp. bene), agellus (^^ager-lo-s), etc.
The suffix was sometimes even reduplicated as in
puellula for ^ptLer-lo-ld. Of the same origin are
the Greek diminutive suffixes in -vXXto-, elSvXXiov
" idyll," etc., which arise from forms in -u-Xo-, but
the suffix is extended later to all kinds of stems.

^ Lindsay, Clasgical Review, vi. p. 87.

« For Indo-G. "^sed-la,

' With change of declension as often, cp. x^o/Di-aXo-t A«im-»7t-<.
From the suffix -dhlo- with this change of declension comes the
suffix 'bili' so widely developed in Latin for the formation of
adjectives.

— § 392 SUFFIXES PRECEDED BY -S- 383

391-

'tUh &¥-r\o-¥ : ex-avk-dd-re (borrowed from Gk.)

: aae-du-m^
•dhlo-* Biiu-B\o'¥ : cp. sta-bulu-m

39.2. Both -r- and -/- suflSxes are sometimes
preceded by -s-, which was borrowed originally from
the end of a preceding root or stem and then
treated as part of the suflix. This -s- sometimes
arises phonetically, as in Lat. ros-trvr-m (rod-o),
raS'tru-m (rad-o). In mon-stru-m it has no such
justification. A development of this new suffix in
'8tro- is the masculine suffix -aster found in olea-ster,
parasitaster (Ter. Adelph. 7*79), etc, a suffix which
has been borrowed by English in poet-aster, etc.
With -/-sufi&xes this -s- had existed in the root of
dla = *ax4a (cp. ax-is, a^-mv, Eng. ax-le), but is
borrowed in prS-lu-m if for *prem-8-lo-m, in scdla
= *scand + s-ld (§ 188), etc. The suffixes in -n-
also are often preceded by -s- (§ 186).

In Greek, forms with -tro- {-trd) and -a- pre-
fixed are found from verbal roots (a) in the fem.
to express the place where action takes place:
opxv^^P^ " dancing place," iraT^Urrpa " wrestling
place," etc. ; (6) in the neut to express the instru-
ment whereby the verb action is carried on :
afJL^iffKfjarpov {afA^ifiaXKoi), yjrrjirTpov (-^aa), etc.).

^ Thia word is always so scanned in Plantns (Lindsay, C.JL
vi. p. 89).

* Dr. Fennell (Proc Camh, Phil, Soe. 1894, p. 2) attacks Bmg-
mann's views regarding the suffixes in -dhro- and -ilhlo- and
connects e.g. probmm with the rt found in Skt. prf-^ thus making
its original form ^proa-rtt-m ''a spot, stain."

384 HISTORY OF JSrOUN FORMATION §392 —

The -0-- arises from dental or »- stems: iraUrrfyri
(Herondas, iii. 11) fr. Tratfcw (*7ratS-6G)), or is intro-
duced from the perf. pass, and extended to other
cases by analogy.

393. The sufl&x -mo- occurs in a comparatively
-mo-irafflxes, Small uumbcr of substantive and adjec-
(o) primary, ^-^g forms pretty widely disseminated

through the whole family of languages.

Bv-iUhi : fa-mus

4>op-fi&'S : l/or-ma : bar-m^

A¥€-fio-s : ani-mu-a

Oep'/td-s : /or-mU'8 (§ 141, b) : toar-m

^^M ' fd-ma

The suflSx is fairly frequent in Greek, sometimes
in combination with -t- (as in ipe-rfiO'^ " oar ") and
'0' (o-ra-OfjLo-^ " station ").* In Latin the feminine
-ma occurs, in a few words as a primary suflGbc,
ru-ma, spu-ma, but in lacri-ma is secondary, or arises
by adaptation after spvr-Tna?

394. The superlative is frequently formed with
(6) in super- ^^^ suffix ; -tero- in the comparative

lativeg. jjg^ jjj g]j^ ^^^ Latin -tmrnO' in the

o

superlative ; pos-ter-ior, pos-tumus. But the simple

^ In Ghauoer "lap, bosom." These three similar derivatives
from the same root as ^p-to are an interesting example of the
development of meaning; har-m apparently as if "bearer, support,'*
for-ma like the English "bearing** whence "figure, beauty" (cp.
/ormo8tu) ; 4»opfJi6-s (1) "a basket for carrying," (2) " basket-work,
wicker. " The Romance languages however postulate /^r-ma which
renders the etymology doubtful.

' The -a- which appears before -/i- in iafi"^ by the side of 69ft'fi
and in some other words is not of phonetic origin and comes
in late.

' Bloomfield, A,J,P. rii. p. 27.

— § 396 SUPERLATIVE SUFFIX IN -MO- 385

-mo- is also found in Latin prl-mus for "'^prts-mu-s
(cp. priS'iinu-s, pris-cvr^). Somewhat similar is
Trpo-fU)'^ " chief." Compare also opti-mus, pulcher-
ri'mus, humil4i'mu-s, nov-issi-mus. The same
suffix is found in Eng. fore-m-ost, which, like hind'
most, arises from a combination of -uma- with -is^-
the superlative suffix in apHcro-f;, etc. In irv-fia'
To-^ the same suffix may possibly be found if the
word is Aeolic and connected with a-nro. In Latin
superlatives like ptdcher-ri-^mu-s, humiUli-mus, etc.,
the simplest explanation of the suffix is that -ri-
mu', 'li-mu- stand for -simo- which arises phonetic-
ally from 'tmmo after -t- as in peS'Simu-Sj *pet^
tmmO'S, from root of pet-o, Gk. irL-irr-to. But
pessimus being in popular etymology connected
with peior, the suffix is then generalised as -mmU'S
in novi'Ssimu-s, etc.^

395. The suffixes in -rw- form a very large group,
parallel to the numerous forms of -n-

. , . •no-sufflxes.

stems ; -no- {-nno-), -eno-, -ono- ; -meTW'

[-7710710-], -mnO' ; [-tno-] -tnuo-; and in Greek

^ This extremely difficult problem has been again attacked by
Sommer {I.F, xi. pp. 225 ff.). He explains pigerrimua and
faeillimus as arising, while Latin still preserved its prehistoric
accent on the first syllablei from pig-r-is-riimO'S and ydc-l-is-rp^mo-s
by syncope which produced *pig-f'Se7no8 and ^fac-l-semos, whence
*pigerremtL8f later pigerriinusj etc. On this view -w- is the weak
grade of the -}08-suffix. The theory is plausible, but on it as on
all others a large number of the forms have to be explained by
analogy, while Sommer's case against older explanations is not
convincing. If it be true, then the -er- of sacernmvs is as old as
that of 8a4;er, for sakros as a nom. sing, seems established on the
inscription found in the Roman Forum in 1899 (see Appendix D).
2 C

386 HISTOR Y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 396 —

396. Forms with -no-suffixes are used both as
(o).no-. substantives and as adjectives.

riK'Vo-w : [cp. ^i^-nw-m (§ 196)] \ (hane^ {O.Y^, ^eg-n)

ihr-vo-t : aom-nu-s : 0. £ng. swejn

dfi'Pd-s : ag-nu-8 (§ 140, n. 2)

or-vo-j (rare) : u-nu-s : (m« (0.£. dn)

fpofk-vh-t : cp. ae-nu'8

( = *0of co'-i'o-f) ( = *ajfi9'no-8)

397. The suffix -6710- is found in Latin : 0. Lat.

dv-enos, classical b-ono-s ; hellus comes
from ^b-en-lo-s. Greek shows -ono- in
such words as Kp-oi/0-9, Op-ovo-^, rih-ovrj,^ The
suffix -eno- survives in, English in such participial •
forms as hounden ; -ono- in /at?i (O.E. fccgen, 0.
Low Grerm. fag-an), and in the first syllable of
wan-ton,^ Middle Eng. wan-hope (despair), where
wan = ^ii'OnO' with the same root as in Gk. ei-vi-^
" bereft," Skt. H-nd-s " lacking."

398. The adjectival suffix 47io- is sometimes

early, as in ^177-61/0-9 : Lat. fag-inu-s :
cp. Eng. beech-en, but in Greek words of
time as iap-i-vo-^ may possibly be a new forma-
tion from the locative eapt " in the spring." For
a similar origin of other stems compare eyxcifuov,
literally what is said iv K(ofKp, and Lat. aborigines,
the inhabitants ab origine.

^ For the change of meaning between riKwott and thaite cp. the
difference between the special sense of child (in e,g, Childe Harold)
and its usual value.

3 Biiigmann's explanation of donum as a contraction of this
suffix with the root vowel is not at all probable (Orundr, ii. § 67 c).

' Wanton means properly ''without teaching, education.*.' The
simple word wan is of a different origin (Skeat, Mynu Did. 8, v, ).

— § 400 • STEMS ENDING IN -NO- 387

399. The form -Ino- is common as a secondary
suffix in the classical languages gener-
ally to make names of living beings, or
adjectives connected with them.^ In the Germanic
languages it is also so used, and more widely as
the suffix for adjectives derived from "nouns of
material." In Latin the feminine of the adjectives
in -Iw)' is commonly used of the flesh of the animal
(sc. caro) ; capr-lTia " goat's flesh," etc., although it
has other values as pisc-lna "fish-tank," scU-lnae
" salt-pits."

-i7U7- as ordinary adj. dTXiOT-rro-f 'v fvic-inu-s: cj^, Goth.

[■ : cp. -{ aitveins {eternal)

Tpofunj<rT-ufO'S J Kperegr-inu-s

-Ino-assubst.^ Kopcuc-TpO'S : c^. sobr-inu-s : cp. maiden

( = ^sosr-lnO'S)
dcXfpaK'ivTi : cp. reg-ina

•ino- as adj. of animals : su-inu-s i svnne

400. The forms -meno-, -mono- (not found in
Greek anywhere, but postulated for
some participial forms in Sanskrit) and
'mnO' stand in ablaut relations to one another.
Some Greek forms in -avo- after a consonant, as
a-Te^-avO'^, could phonetically represent -mno-.
The suffix is mostly used to form participles of the
middle voice, though some forms are ordinary sub-
stantives, these last occurring most frequently when
a substantive in -men- -mov^ is also present; cp.

^ The order of development seems to be that -Ino- first made
an adjective from the simple stem, the masc. or fem. of which was
next made a substantive. Some forms as uncinus peregrimis may
be developed from a loc. as possibly in Greek oIkcTos (§ 402, n. 2).

* The suffix is frequent in proper names : ^iKtyos, Albimts^ etc.

388 HISTOR Y OF NOUN FORMA TION § 400

^eke-fivO'V "missile," arpm-fivri "couch" {crpm-fui);
TT^a-fiovii " satiety " ; Lat. al'tc-mnv^s " nursling,"
Vertvr-mnU'S, col-u-mna (cp. cvl-men) ; ter-minus
(termo and termen). Owing to the weakening of
•Latin vowels in unaccented syllables, it is impossible
to decide whether -miTu?- represents original -meno-,
-mono-, or -mnno-. In Lat. legimini of the 2nd pi.
pres. ind. pass, is apparently identical with X€7o-
fjLevoiy while in the imperative it is now explained
as an infinitive form identical with Xerfi-fievai
(§ 359).

401. The sufi&xes found in Greek -irvvo- and

Latin -tino- present some difficulty. In

Sanskrit there is a suffix -tvaTiA- to

which -avvo' might be a weak grade (cp. irir-vo^y

Skt. svap-na-s ; vpa^, Lat. sorex = *8y>er'). In that

case we must suppose the two grades had once

existed in Greek, and that just as ere ( = tF€)

produces by analogy av for rv, so here -aevo-

( = -rFevo-) produced -avpo- for -two- by analogy.^

If a suffix 4%enO' had existed in Latin, it would

have become phonetically -tono-, whence in the

unaccented syllable -tino-. But all

Latin -tino-.

Latin words with the suffix 'tino-
are adjectives of time, cras-tinus, pris'tinu-s,
etc., and in Skt. a suffix -tana- with the same
meaning is found. With this suffix therefore
the Latin form is more probably connected. A
shorter form in -^na- is also found in Skt., and for
this and other reasons it seems probable that the
Latin suffix represents -tniio-. The question as to

^ Brugm. Orundr ii. § 70, note.

— § 402 STEMS ENDING IN -10- 389

whether the suffix -tno- is not the origin of the
gerund suffix in Latin has akeady been touched
on (§ 194).

The forms in -mentO' and -'^nto- have abready
been noticed (g 359, 361).

402. The suffix -jp- -j3- with its byform -ijo-
-iiS- is mainly adjectivaL It can be
added to all stems in order to make
adjectives from them. Some forms made with this
suffix as trdrpio^i Lat. patHus ( = *p9tr'i}p'$) have no
doubt descended from the proethnic period; but
the great majority of the forms have been con-
structed by the individual languages separately and
at different times in their history. The suffix is
naturally for the most part secondary, although a
few forms like ay-co-f: " holy," a^dy-uy-v " sacrifice,"
Lat. stiid'iii-m, come apparently direct from the root.
In Greek the suffix is disguised when it is preceded
(1) by T, «, ^, ^ which amalgamate with -4- into
-aa-, Attic -tt- (§ 197); (2) by S, y which with
-t- become f ^ (§ 197). When added to an -0- or
-a- stem the characteristic vowel of the stem is
omitted, possibly, Brugmann thinks,^ because the

* fiy-to-f therefore = *a7-t40t, cp. dfb/ieu = *d7-to-/Luw.

' Orundr, ii. § 68, 2, note 8. A discovery by Bronisch (Die
oskisehen i unde Focale, pp. 67 ff.) seems to throw light upon this
difficult point. Oscan distinguishes between two groups of stems,
one represented by nom. StcUiSf the other by nom. Puntiis
(Uo/imes), this last being represented by the Romans as PorUius,
The principle is that praenomina or iiotnina derived from prae-
nomina which have no -t- suffix make the nom. in -i- only ; while
forms from an already existing -}o-stem have -ii. The -i-forms
thus depend on Indo*G. gradation, the -it- forms on special Oscan
syncope. We might therefore argue from analogy that rlfi-uhs

390 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION § 402

primary formations influence these secondary forms :
hence arfp-io^, rifjLnUi^ (jtM) ; Lat. Ivd-ius " player "
(ludus), avius (via). The suflBx showed gradation ;
Latin stems in honcc in old Latin ali'S, ali-d, not al-iiis,
'*^" al-ivr-d, Caecilis as well as CaecUius,
Names of the type Ateius, Vdleius, etc., seem
secondary derivatives from A tins, Vdlius, etc. The
enumeration of the vast mass of suffixes, produced
by the addition of -{b- to simple suffixes and com-
binations of simple suffixes, belongs rather to the
grammar of each individual language than to com-
parative philology.

403. As the suffix -JO- -jS- is parallel to the

suffix -t-, so the suffix -i«o- -udr- with its

byform -u^o- -uyaL is parallel to the

suffix -1^. Some words in which this suffix occurs

have already been mentioned (§20 f.). It is used

specialised for ^^^ ^^^^^ uouns and adjcctivcs, and in

colours. i^tin and the Germanic languages is

specialised to form adjectives of colour; Lat.

fla-vU'S, ful-vu-8, fur-vu-St gU-viis, hd-vu-s ; Eng.

sallow, ydlow, fallow} blue.

: di'VOS : low{=hillt cp. § 186)

Xau-Fd-s : Uu-vo-a : slow (§ 174)

has the structure of primitive formations, while djicatof from dUcri
parallel to riff^ represents a later Greek formation for dura+ctof.
So olK-ia represents an early derivative parallel to oU-o-s, while
olKciot represents the secondary formation, olxdot however might
represent an ar^'. derived from a locative ofjrec, cp. i-Kti-wos (§ 825, v.),
and so also Bi^/Scuos, 'AOrpKuotj etc., where the difference from iUaios
in accentuation is noteworthy, dvdpeios is obviously an analogical
formation.

^ The word in fallow-deer and fallow-field is the same, being in
both cases an epithet of colour (cp. N.EJ). s.v.).

— § 404 STEMS ENDING IN -UO- 391

Attic ^ei/09, f €1/09 represent *fC€V'Fo'^ (cp. xeve-o^)
and ^€P'Fo'^. As a secondary suffix it is found in
the Greek verbals in -reo- ( = -re-Fo-) : 7r/>a«-Teo-9,
etc., and possibly in adjectives in -aXco-: pcoy-
a\€0'<;} In Latin it is found with a preceding
vowel in Miner-va ( = ^MeTies-o^d whence Minerua
quadrisyllabic, Plaut. Bacch, 893)^ from the stem
*mene8', Gk. fievo^t and in some adjectives as
cernuos ( = *cer9'n'0y/>s, cp. Gk. Kopa-rj) " headlong,"
menstr-iM'S (cp. tri-mestr-i-s, etc.) "monthly."
Tnort'Uos is probably a modification of an older
*morto-s (Indo-G. = ^mrtd-s) after the analogy of
the suffix in vi-vo-s, opposites very often influencing
one another in this way.

404. In Latin the suffix -Ivo- is frequent, -tlvo-
still more so. The long -l- seems to Latin -iw). and
have been borrowed in the first instance '"**"•
from -i-stems. The value of the suffix is identical
with 'tW', both being found from the same root, cp.
voC'lvO'S (and vac-lvo-s) with vac-uo-s, cad-lvo-s
(late) with occid-uo-s, sta-tlvo-s with sta-tua}

^ Bnigniann, Orundr, ii. § 64.

' Solmsen, Studien, p. 137. The text of the line where Minerua
occurs is doubtful but pruina (§ 201) shows that -s- before •)<- was
lost

' Another explanation is given by Thumeysen {IC,Z. 28, p.
155 f.) and von Planta {GhrammcUik d. osk-umb, DialekU, i. § 86),
who hold that the forms in -ivo- are secondary formations with -jo-
from •'u-stems ; the combination -yi- becoming in primitive Italic
-fjf"/ Gff'i^^ from *Oaiuos=-*Ga^jfi8j divoa=*di^ios or *dei]^io8
(§ 208). The relation of dlvus to deus is explained by Brugmann
{Grundr, i.' p. 184). Both come from different forms of one stem
exactly like oleum hom the same stem as olivum, oliva. The
paradigm became phonetically deuSy dlvi^ and either form in time
completed a paradigm for itself (cp. § 54).

392 HISTORY OF NOUN FORMATION §406

405. In Greek the suffix -w or -9* is found in a
certain number of words, especially proper names.
The nom. in -q> is apparently the older of the two.
Since Greek proper names originally always con-
sisted of two words, as ^tXo€rrparo9, A^/too-0€i^9,
shorter forms are really pet names like the English
Tom, Dick, etc. Of this nature therefore are female
names like ^tXio, Hai/^o). Common nouns are
rare, ifxy^, TrecOw, ircvOw. The origin of the forms
is disputed. The most plausible explanation^ is
that they are diphthongal stems in -Oi, final -i being
lost phonetically in the nom. and restored later
from the voc. in -oj, a case which in proper names
naturally plays a large part. On this theory these
stems are identified with a few Skt. stems of which
sakM " friend " ace. sakhdyam is the type. Stems
in '(ov are confused with them to some extent.
Hence yjEkiZol (voc. Aristoph. Birds, 1411) and
byforms of arfid^Vy eixdv, and other stems.

The history of the forms irdrpcn^ "father's
brother," fj^rpo)^ "mother's brother" is not dear.
Wackernagel assumes ^irarpa-Fo-^, Brugmann
*7raTpa>'Fo'(;, etc. (with pay for r), as the earlier
forms ; Meyer, Eretschmer, and others claim them
as old '6U' stems with the -s -ending added and
the declension modified.^ The nom. dual of the

^ Given by Johannes Schmidt, K.Z, 27, pp. 874 ff., and by others.

« Bnigm. IF. ix. p. 372 f., Oriech, Gram,^ p. 183 f. ; G. Meyer,
Oriech, Gram.* p. 421 ; Kretechmer, K,Z. 31, p. 466. In Homer,
nuTfHJjios is the only a^j. from the root, and in meaning is more
akin to irar^p. Any explanation of the form must take account
of the cognate words /nrrpvid "stepmother/* Latin patruus
"father's brother," the former possibly arising from a weak grade

§ 406 INDO'GERMANIC NUMERALS 393

-o-stems is more generally recognised as an -ot^-stem
.(§ 315).

XXm. The Numerals

406. The Indo-Germanic system of numeration
is from the outset decimal. At points it is crossed
by a duodecimal system, traces of which remain in
the dozen and the gross. A combing- D«;imai and duo-
tion of the decimal and duodecimal ^~*°*^ "y'***'"'-
system is found in the " long hundred "( = 12x10),
but the material at our disposal seems to give
scarcely ground enough for the ingenious theory,
propounded by Johannes Schmidt, that the duo-
decimal elements in the Indo-Germanic system of
numeration were borrowed from the sexagesimal
system of the Babylonians, and that consequently
the original seat of the former people must have
been in Asia and in the neighbourhood of Babylon.^
Pronouns and numerals are amongst the most
stable elements of language, and the Indo-Grer-
manic peoples are more harmonious in their use
of numerals than in their use of pronouns.
But the forms for individual numbers in the
separate languages often are different from those
which by a comparison of other languages we
should theoretically expect. The truth is that the
numerals are as much in a series as forms in the

of the suffix -d)^-, viz. -9]^-, whence 0, followed by -t}d, cp. vXhn
(§ 116), while j?a<rui« may represent ^p^tr-ouo-s (§ 403).

^ Die Urheimath der iTidogcrmanen und das europaische Zahl-
system (1890), cp. H. Hirt, Die Urheimath der Indogermanen LF,
i. pp. 464 ff.

394 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC §406

paradigm of a noun or a verb, and that consequently
analogical changes are continually arising. For
example, the series in the Latin names of months,

September, , November, December, naturally

leads to the formation of an Octember, which is
actually found, although it did not permanently
survive.

A. Cardinal Numbers.

407. One. A root *oj- with various suffixes is
used for this numeral by most languages: Lat.
u-nus ( = *oj-7M)-s) ; Eng. one (O.E. aw). Greek
preserves this in ot-1/0-9, ol-vi\ " one on dice," but
has replaced it in ordinary use by ch, fua, ev
( = *5em-s, *swi-ia, *sem). ot-09 " alone " represents
original ^oi-uo-s.

408. Two. Indo-G. (1) ^d^fi and d]fi^. (2)
*dwjfi ; in compounds, (3) *djfi- : Gk. (2)8i;a): (1)
Sci-Se/ea (Sf o)-) : Lat. (2) duo : Eng. (1) two (O.E.
twoL fem. and neut. ; twegen masc. with a further
suffix ; hence twain), Svo, the only form for which
there is inscriptional authority in Attic, is not clear.
Brugmann conjectures that it was the original
neuter.^ *dy,i' is found in Greek St-9 Sl-ttov^, Lat.
bi'S bi-den-s ( = ^di^i-s, cp. bonus, § 397) : Eng. tvnce
(O.E. tun-es), tuns-t "something made of two
strands."

409. Three. Indo-G. *trejres, neuter probably

1 Orundr. ii. § 166. He now regards it {OrUch. Oram.^ p. 212)
as a shortened form arising before a succeeding initial vowel.
Kretschmer (K,Z. 31, p. 451 n.) holds that 86c is simply the unin-
flected stem.

§ 412 CARDINAL NUMERALS 395

*M (cp. § 317, 6), the plural of an -i-stem. Gk.
T/0€t9 ( = *^rej-es), Tpl-a ; Lat. ires (cp. oves, § 3 1 7, a),
tri-a, Eng. three (O.E. tSrz masc., 5r^o fem. and
neut.).

410. Four. Original form not certain, probably
a stem *(^etyx)r- with all possible gradations in both
syllables. From the stronger grades come the
various forms of the numeral in Greek rerope^,
Te(T<Tap€<;, etc. (§ 139, Exc. 1). rpd-Tre^a is said to
be derived from a weak form *g'V<j^r-, which, it may
be safely averred, never existed in that form. This
like the preceding three numerals was originally
inflected. Latin has dropped the inflexion and
changed the vowel sound of the first syllable from
'6' to -a-, according to most authorities on the
analogy of the ordinal qiiartus, which obtains its
-ar- according to the received explanation from a
long sonant r (-f-). For the change in the initial
sound in the English numeral (/- where wh- might
be expected) cp. § 139, Exc. 3.

411. Five. Indo-G. *per?qVe: Greek Trevre
(§ 139, 6), Lat. quiiique with assimilation of initial
sound (§ 139, Exc. 2) and -e- changing to -i- before
a guttural nasal (§161); Eng./ve (O.E./i/) with
assimilation of consonant in the second syllable
(§139, Exc. 3).

412. Six. Here different languages seem to
postulate different original forms : *sj^ek8 and *sek8
will explain the forms in all Indo-G. languages
except Armenian and Old Prussian, which require
*Ueks} Gk. ef = *sysks, for f ef and its compounds
* Brugmann, Orundr. ii. § 170.

396 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC % 412 —

are found in several dialects. Lat. sex, Eng.
six = *8ek8.

413. Seven. Indo-G. *8eptm: Greek errrd:
Lat. septem. The Grermanic forms, Goth, sibun,
Eng. seven, etc., show the numeral without any
sound corresponding to the original -t-, a peculiarity
for which several explanations have been offered.
It seems most likely to arise, before the action of
Grimm's Law begins, from some form of assimilation
of *septm into *sepm, whether in the ordinal *8eptmO'
as Brugmann, or in the cardinal as Kluge and
others contend. The accent must have changed to
the last syllable at a very early period.

414. Eight. Indo-G. *oktd]f *oktd ; in form a
dual Gk. 6/cTw : Lat. octo : Eng. eight (OJE.
eahta; primitive Grermanic form *ahtau), Fick
conjectures that the word originally meant "the
two tips " (of the hands) and derives from a rt ok-
seen in 6Kpc^, etc.

415. Nine. Indo-G. two forms : (1) *inun and
(2) *neun. Gk. (1) in ei/a-To-9 " ninth " ( = *€vFn-
ro'<;, cp. f 61/09, § 403); (2) iv-via explained^ as
" nine in all " with the original Gk. preposition iv
in the sense of the later €9 in such phrases as €9
rpk, €9 Trivre vav<:, etc. Lat. (2) novem with -m
after decern, for non-us shows -n, Eng. nine (O.E.
nigon out of *newun).

416. Ten. Indo-G. Hekm: Gk. ScW: Lat.
decern : Eng. ten (O.E. Hen), Kluge contends that
the original form was *d6kmt?

» By Wackernagel, K,Z. 28, pp. 132 ff.
' Paurs Orwndriss, i.^ p. 488.

— § 418 CARDINAL NUMERALS 397

417. Eleven to Nineteen. In Indo-G. these seem
to have been generally expressed by copulative com-
pounds which are retained in Latin throughout :
undecim (^-im in an unaccented syllable), octodecim
etc., and in Greek in ev-SeKa, BcoSeKa. Bieven »nd
Eleven and twelve in the Germanic q'J^^ ^.
languages are expressed dififerently by *^^'**^*
means of a suflBx 4if: Goth, din-lif, twa-lif. This
suffix some connect plausibly with -ZiAa, which in
Lithuanian makes the numerals from eleven to nine-
teen. If the identification is correct, both go back
to a form *4iqV' in which the Germanic languages
have changed -q- to /- as in five (§ 139, Exc. 3).
The meaning also is disputed, but it seems best to
connect it with the root *lejg}^' of Xc/tt-w linquo, in
the meaning " one over, two over." That the word
ten should be omitted is no more surprising than
the omission of shilling in " one and eightpence." *

418. From thirteen to nineteen Attic Greek
numbers by rpeU teal Bixa, etc., the first

_ . , . „ ^ , , , . Double form of

word remaming inflected on inscriptions numeration in

... „^^ -rn , t . . Attic Greek.

till 300 B.C. If the substantive pre-
cedes, the numerals are in the reverse order, like
the English twenty -four, etc., avhpa<n hkxa errrd,
a system which holds good as a general rule also
for larger numbers.^ For eighteen and nineteen
Latin employs most frequently a method of sub-
traction from twenty : diwdeviginti, undeviginti ;
cp. O.E. twd Ices twentig.

^ Bnigmann, Grundr, ii. § 175, giyes this explanation, but
derives from ^Itip- seen in Skt. limpdmi ''adhere."

^ Meisterhans, Grammatik der aUischen Inaehriften^, pp. 126 fiT.

398 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC § 419 —

419. The Tens. The Greek heKOM represents a
very old abstract substantive ^dddmi (cp. § 347),
from forms of which all tens and also all hundreds
are made. The first syllable is reduced in com-
position and disappears, *dkmt' and ^dkomt- be-
coming Gk. 'KOT' and -kovt-. The original name
for hundred seems to have meant " ten tens."

420. Twenty. A dual form. Indo-G. prob-
ably *'ifi-kmt-i with a new form for two, according
to Brugmann^ from a stem meaning "apart, against,"
found in English wi-th and possibly in wi-de (a
participial form). This stem appears in different
languages in what appear to be different grades
and case forms : Gk. Doric Fi-Kar-i, Attic et-Koai,
with -0- on the analogy of the following tens ; Lat.
vi-gint'l {-g- instead of -c- probably after septin-
genti where it is phonetically correct). Eng.
twenty is from O.E. twentig contracted from *twcem
tigum^ with crystallised dative case. The Ger-
manic substantive *tigus is a modification of
*dekmt-.

o

421. Thirty to Ninety are plural forms.

Indo-G. Gk. Lat. [0. Eng.»

30 ^ tri-IconU-d : rptd-Korr-a : tri-gintd : tSrUig

40 1 * qUetj^f-homi'9 : rerpfb-Kovr-a : qtiadrd-girUd : feowertig

(cp. Tcrrapd-KoyTa)
50 * peng^e-hmU-9 : Trofrii'KWTa : quinqud-ginid : /tftig]

In the original language modifications seem to
have appeared in the reduced form of the numeral

* Grundr. ii. § 177.

* Sievers, Grammar of Old Ejiglish (Eng. trans, p. 168).

3 The English forms are not identical with the Latin and Greek
forms.

§ 424 CARDINAL NUMERALS 399

four (if =*2'^e^jfr) in 40 and the lengthening of -^-
in 50. The latter seems certain as the lengthening
occurs also in other languages than those cited, a
in Tpcd'Kovra seems to have been produced by the
influence of the succeeding numerals.

422. From sixty (where the. decimal and
duodecimal systems cross) different languages follow
different lines of development, so that it is im-
possible to say what the original forms were.
Greek and Latin remain similar, and English
carries on the numeration as it is still preserved.

In Greek i^-ij-Kovra, i^Sofi-ij-fcovra, o^io-rj-Kovra
and ivev-ri-Kovra ( = *€vFev-) have taken -97- from
irevT-ri'Kovrcu Compare Lat. sex-d-ginta, etc.
There is also a form oyBay-Kovr-a, The origin of
-)88- and -78- in the forms for 70 and 80 is very
difficult to explain (cp. § 432).

423. Hundred. Indo-G. ^knUd-m, a reduction
of *dkmtd'Vi. 6k. k-Karo-v (apparently = " one-
hundred," €- coming from the stem in eh, a- of aTraf ,
etc.) : Lat. centu-m : O.E. hund and hund-Uon-tig,
The Gothic is taihuntBhund, but as to the proper
division of this word there is much uncertainty,
the meaning being either Se/ca BcKciBe^ (Johannes
Schmidt) or SckoScdv Seted^ (Brugmann).

424. The development of the forms for the
hundreds is a matter of much dispute. The forms
in Greek at any rate are derivatives in -jo- from
the stem tsmt- whence in Doric -KaTLoi-, in Attic
'Kotriot with the -o- borrowed from -kovtu. In
Latin, the forms are compounds with -centum,
which instead of being neuter plurals have become

400 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC % 424

adjectival, apparently by a syntactical change which
introduced the construction "so many hundred
things " instead of the partitive " of things."
quadringenti and octingenti have borrowed -in-
from septingenti.

425. Thousand- For this the Aryan and Greek
branches have a common form represented by Ionic
j(€i\ioc, Attic j(^IXloi, Lesb. ^cXX-tot ( = *gh€S'l'\
Latin milia cannot be connected with fivpioi] an
ingenious but not very plausible attempt has been
made^ to connect it with j^IXlol as *5m-(A)i/ia,
literally " one thousand," sm- being from the root
of *s«m- eU and the word thus parallel except in
the suflBlx to Skt. sahasra-m. s is dropped pho-
netically before m in Latin (cp. mirua) and A- is
sometimes lost as in (h)an8er. The singular form
then stands to milia as omne to omnia. The
Grermanic pUsundi, Eng. thousand, seems to have
been originally a vague abstract substantive mean-
ing " many hundreds." O.N. pumnd is used like
Gk. fivpioi,^

B. Ordinals.

426. The ordinals are adjectival forms derived
in most cases from the same stem as the cardinals.
The suffixes of the numerals vary, some ending in
-mo-, others in -^0-, and some in -jfo-. These three

1 By E. W. Fay {A.J.P, xiii. pp. 226 f.) ; see also I.F. xi. pp.
320 if. Sommer's attempt {I,F. x. pp. 216 fif.) on the same lines
but from a fern. *aml §zhll is not more convincing.

2 Kluge (after Vigfusson) in Paul's GrundrisSf i.^ p. 491.

— § 432 ORDINAL NUMERALS 401

suflBxes and combinations of them are found in
different languages even with one root.

427. First. Indo-G. root *jper-, Gk. irp&To^
(Doric irparoi) for ^irpui-F-a-TO'^^ : Lat. prl-mU'S
( = *pTl8'mU'8, § 394) : O.E.fyrst with suffix -isto-.

428. Second. In each language an independent
formation. Gk. Bev-repo-^ according to some from
a strong form of the root seen in Sv-cd, according
to Brugmann from Sev-o-fiai and thus meaning
" coming short of." Lat. secundus from sequor has
practically the same meaning ; cU-ter which is often
used in the same way is from the same root as
al'iiLS, In cd'ter as in Eng. other (O.E. otier from
an Indo-6. *dn'terO'S) the meaning "one of two,
second " arises from the comparative suffix.

429. Third. Here also dififerent formations
appear, but all from the stem *tri' or *ter', Gk.
rpl'TO'^y Hom. rplT-aro-^ : Lat. ter-tivs (cp. Lesbian
rep'TO'si) : O.E. '&ndda (North, tiridda) may repre-
sent *tTe-t}p'S or *tri4ip'8,

430. Fourth. Formed from dififerent grades of
the stem of four in Greek, Latin, and English
with a 'to- or 4ho- suffix : rera/OTo-? ; Lat. quartu-s
(§410); 0.E, feor6a.

431. Fifth and Sixth have also a -^o-suffix:
Indo-G. *penq^40'S, *8{yf)eks4os ; Gk. Trefiirro^,
?/cro^ with -cr- lost phonetically between -/t- and -t-
(§ 188): Lat. quinc-tu-s (quinrtU'S), sex4us ; O.E.
flf'ta, siexta.

432. Seventh. The suffix in most languages is
-mo-. There were possibly three original forms,^

^ Brugmann, Grttndr, ii. § 171

2d

402 HISTORY OF THE INDO-GERMANIC § 432 —

(1) *««ptoo-, (2) ^wptm-mO' and (3) ^septm-td-.
The fonn ''^septmo- may possibly explain the voicing
of the original consonants in Gk. S^hofi-o-^} which
would then arise from a confusion of two forms,
^iphfjLO' and ^hrrafjLO; To this second form Lat.
Beptimus belongs. English in the ordinals from
seventh onwards to twentieth shows a -^o-suflBx.

433. Eighth. The Greek and Latin forms of
this ordinal may be derived with the simple sufSx -0-
from the stem *okt(^: SySoF-o-^, Lat. octdv-tL-s.
In oySoo^ -7S- is supposed to arise from the influence
of -)8S- in ?/3Sofio^. The -a- of octdv-Vr^ is dif&cult ;
a form more closely resembling SyBoo-^ is seen in
the Low Latin octvd-ffinta for *octov-d', on the
analogy of which the more permanent form septud-
ginta must have been originally made.^

434. Ninth. Made in Greek with suffix -to-, in
Latin with -0-; iva^ro^ : Lat. Tidn-u-s out of *n5dn-
*noven- from noun-, cp. nun-dinii-m, " space of nine
daya"'

435. Tenth. Greek -^0-, Lat. -two-; Gk.S^ica-To-9:
Lat. decim-us ( = *dekmmo-s), Kluge finds only an
-o-suffix in Gk. (cp. § 416).

436. For the ordinals from twentieth to hun-

^ According to Schmidt (K,Z. 82, p. 325) the vowel of the
middle syllable is affected by the following -o-, while in ipSe/jucuo^
(Epidaurus) it is affected by the preceding i-, i^HoftiiKovra onght
therefore to be i^HtfiiiKovra, as in Heradean.

■ Conway holds {LF. It. p. 217) the probable view that both the
Oreek and the Latin form come from an original ^oktf^o-, whence
-oFo- '&VO- and through the influence of the cardinal nimiber -oFo-
<lvO', the quality of the final sound affecting the Qreek, its
quantity the Latin form.

3 Solmsen, StvdUn, p. 84,

— § 438 ORDINAL NUMERALS 403

A

dredth Greek has a suffix -<o- whencje with ^-hmU
'Kar- comes -KoaTo-^.m Attic, analogically or directly
from ^'komU, -Koaro-s. The sufifix -simus in Latin
represents -tmmo- as in some superlatives; hence
vicesimus ( = *'^l'1mt47nm0'8), trigesimiis, etc.

437. The ordinals beyond hundredth in both
Greek and Latin depend upon the forms of the
cardinal numbers in the same way as those already
mentioned (7r€i^a#co<rtocrT09, quingentesimus, eta).
By the Bomans the adjectival suffix in numerals
was felt to be -isimvs, and in this manner ceTUesi-
mus and higher ordinals are made. In precisely
the same way Greek carries on -crro', which arises
phonetically in elKooTOf;, etc., to these obviously
new formations.

THE VEEB

XXIV. Verb Morphology

438. In the discussion of the verb, in tracing
the history of its forms and the development of its
usages, the philologist meets with much greater
difficulties than beset his path in the investigation
of the noun. In noun-formation the languages of
the Indo-Germanic group show greater uniformity
than in their verb forms. No doubt cases have
become confused and forms originally applied in
one meaning have come to be used in others, but
in all respects the verb has suffered more severely

404 THE /NDO'GERMANIC VERB § 438

than the noun. The syntax of the verb is also more
History of the difl&cult to unravel,the various languages
Verb. differing in many points infinitely more
than in the syntax of the noun. There are,
moreover, fewer materials for comparison. The
languages which have retained their verb-system
best are the Sanskrit, Greek, and Slavonic, the two
first mentioned being closely similar in most respects
and mutually illustrating both morphology and
syntax. Far behind these lag the Keltic, Italic,
and Germanic, the last however preserving some
forms with great purity. Greek and Latin it is
especially difficult to compare. In the Latin verb-
system only a mutilated fragment of the original
scheme is preserved, the defects of which are
remedied by a curious medley of forms pieced
together from various sources. Although the new
forms take the place of others which originally
existed, it is only to be expected that the different
origin of the new forms will introduce differences
in syntax. Hence, in the syntax of the verb,
perhaps no two Indo-Germanic languages are more
unlike than Greek and Latin.

439. In the parent language of the group there
were forms corresponding to those which
we call present, imperfect, future, aorist
(both strong and weak), and perfect. The pluperfect
is probably later. There were also subjunctive and
optative forms, at least to the present and the
aorists. Perhaps in every case the signification
was in some respect different from that which we
now attach to these forms, but the forms at least

— § 441 CHANGES IN GREEK AND LATIN 405

existed There were two voices corresponding to
those which in Greek we call the active and the
middle. Let us see now how this original scheme
has been dealt with by the classical peoples.

440. Greek has preserved the two original voices,
and constructed, out of the middle and

out of new forms which it has itself
created for the future and first aorist, a new voice —
the passive. It has preserved the types of the
active almost intact — we may except the future
and probably the pluperfect — although it has con-
siderably modified individual forms. It has added
a future optative, which is used only in indirect
narration.

441. Latin has recast its voice-system. The
middle as a separate voice disappears

Possibly analysis will show some traces
of it in the new passive with -r suffixes, which the
Italic and Keltic languages alone have developed
(§ 19). The active voice remains, but its forms
are much changed. A new imperfect has been
developed everywhere. In three out of the four
conjugations (according to the usual classification),
there are traces of a new future fully developed in
the types ama-ho and monB-bo, and traceable in
others : t-bo and 0. Lat. scl-bo. The other futures,
whether of the type legam, leges, or ero, or again
the obsolete faxo, dixo, probably represent earlier
subjunctives. The -s-aorist and the perfect are
inextricably confused in one paradigm. Subjunc-
tive and optative are merged in one new mood of
various and, to some extent, uncertain origin, while

406 THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB % 441

some original subjunctives appear in the future or
future perfect.

442. How do the losses and gains of the classical
and In the Ger- Compare with thosc of the Germanic
muucianKiiages. languages? In the latter, as repre-
sented by modem English, much has been lost.
We preserve the ancient present and the perfect
in the so-called strong verbs, zing, sang^ etc. (§ 31),
and there are traces of an optative in the language
of such cultivated persons as say " if I were you."
All else is lost. But within the historical period,
Germanic languages and EhgUsh itself preserved
much more than this. From the earliest period there
is no trace of a future, but there are a few scanty
relics of aorist-forms,^ and Gothic has preserved
considerable remnants of the old middle formation.

The passive is now made entirely by means of
auxiliary verbs, which must also be used in the
active to make the modern perfect, pluperfect,
future, and future perfect. A new past tense with
the sense of the Greek aorist is made in all the
Germanic languages by means of a suflBx corre-
sponding to the English -ed in loved, etc., but an
auxiliary must on the other hand be employed to
form the durative imperfect corresponding to the
Latin amabam (I was loving).

443. This tendency to analysis instead of syn-

thesis in verb-formation is also widely

Tendency to an- , "

aiysis in modern dcvcloped lu the modcm representatives
of the classical languages, thus leading
to the loss of the early future and perfect in both
* Kluge in Paul's Grundriss, i.' p. 488.

— §446 CHARACTERISTICS OF 1 HE VERB 407

the Greek and the Romance dialects. Latin had
akeadj lost all distinction between subjunctive and
optative. Hellenistic Greek is almost in the same
condition; the optative occurs but once in St.
Matthew's Gospel, and the later Atticists use it
rarely and then often wrongly, thus showing that
it had disappeared from the language of the
people.

444. The special characteristics of the verb are
(L) its augment ; (ii) its reduplication, charactertotics
which however we have found to a o'*^®^®'**-
small extent in the noun ; (iii.) its distinctions of
voice, mood, and tense; and (iv.) its endings for
active and middle or passive in the three persons
of the three numbers. Apart from these peculiarities
the verb-stem in many cases cannot be distinguished
from the corresponding noun-stem, the sufiSxes of
the stem in both verb and noun being frequently
identical.

445. (i.) The augment is properly no part of
the verb. It seems to have been origin-
ally an adverbial particle, on to which

the enclitic verb threw its accent (§ 98). It
accompanies only forms with secondary endings,
and seems to have the power of attaching to such
forms the notion of past time, for without this
element, as we shall see later, forms with secondary
endings are found in other meanings than that of
past time. The augment which in the original
language was ?- is found only in the Aryan group,
in Armenian and in Greek. When another element
besides the augment is prefixed to the verb, the

406 THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB % 441 —

some original subjunctives appear in the future or
future perfect.

442. How do the losses and gains of the classical
•ndintheoer- Compare with those of the Grermanic
manicunguage.. languages? In the latter, as repre-
sented by modem English, much has been lost.
We preserve the ancient present and the perfect
in the so-called strong verbs, zing, sang, etc. (§ 31),
and there are traces of an optative in the language
of such cultivated persons as say " if I were you."
All else is lost. But within the historical period,
Germanic languages and English itself preserved
much more than this. From the earliest period there
is no trace of a future, but there are a few scanty
relics of aorist-forms,^ and Gothic has preserved
considerable remnants of the old middle formation.

The passive is now made entirely by means of
auxiliary verbs, which must also be used in the
active to make the modern perfect, pluperfect,
future, and future perfect. A new past tense with
the sense of the Greek aorist is made in all the
Germanic languages by means of a suffix corre-
sponding to the English -ed in loved, etc., but an
auxiliary must on the other hand be employed to
form the durative imperfect corresponding to the
Latin amabam (I was loving).

443. This tendency to analysis instead of syn-

thesis in verb-formation is also widely

Tendency to an- _ _ _ . _ _ . "

aiyiiiB in modem developed in the modern representatives

of the classical languages, thus leading

to the loss of the early future and perfect in both

> Klage in PauVs Orundrias, L* p. 438.

— §445 CHARACTERISTICS OF 1 HE VERB 407

the Greek and the Romance dialects. Latin had
already lost all distinction between subjunctive and
optative. Hellenistic Greek is almost in the same
condition; the optative occurs but once in St.
Matthew's Gospel, and the later Atticists use it
rarely and then often wrongly, thus showing that
it had disappeared from the language of the
people.

444. The special characteristics of the verb are
(i.) its augment ; (ii.) its reduplication, chamcteriatica
which however we have found to a o'*^®^®'^-
small extent in the noun ; (iii.) its distinctions of
voice, mood, and tense; and (iv.) its endings for
active and middle or passive in the three persons
of the three numbers. Apart from these peculiarities
the verb-stem in many cases cannot be distinguished
from the corresponding noun-stem, the suffixes of
the stem in both verb and noun being frequently
identical

445. (i.) The augment is properly no part of
the verb. It seems to have been origin-
ally an adverbial particle, on to which

the enclitic verb threw its accent (§ 98). It
accompanies only forms with secondary endings,
and seems to have the power of attaching to such
forms the notion of past time, for without this
element, as we shall see later, forms with secondary
endings are found in other meanings than that of
past time. The augment which in the original
language was ?- is found only in the Aryan group,
in Armenian and in Greek. When another element
besides the augment is prefixed to the verb, the

408 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB § 446

augment comes between it and the verb, t,g, Kar-e-
fiaXop, unless the compound is used in so specific
a meaning as to be felt as one whole. In such a
case the augment precedes the preposition, e.g.
Ka0€^o/jLai, iKa0€^6fi7)v. Sometimes the augment
in such cases is doubled, being placed before the
preposition and also before the verb, av-ixofiai,
^P'€ij(6fji/yjv.

Two strata of augmented forms can be recognised
in Greek when the root begins with €-. Those in
which the vowel is the original initial sound of the
root combine with the augment into e- (17), while
those roots which have lost an initial consonant
generally make the augmented forms in ei-. Thus
elfil ( = *€V-/aa) makes ^a (1st per. sing.) = *d +68-171,
but €7rofi4u (rt. ^seq^-) makes elTrofirjv ( = *i'<r€7r6fJL7)v)
with the rough breathing of the present. eXxio
(root in two forms in different languages *si^q-
and *uelq-) makes elTucov, ifyyd^ofiai makes in
Attic both elpya^ofirjv and ^pya^ofirjv. In some
forms, however, the vowels originally separated by
a consonant remain uncontracted even in Attic:
iaXcoVf i<o0ovv, icovovfjLtjv, In roots which begin
with t or v the vowel is sometimes lengthened to
indicate an augmented tense. This lengthening
arises not by contraction with the augment, but
on the analogy of augmented forms; hence such
forms as iKeTeva-a, v(f>i]va. The inferior forms
ij/jbeWop, '^Bvpdfjirjp, '^jSovXofirjp do not show a long
form of the augment, as is sometimes supposed, but
are formed on the analogy of ijOeXop from iOiXto ;
"pSea, id}pwp some think = ^S-y^eidesm, ^e-y/yrajpn.

— §446 REDUPLICATION IN THE VERB 409

446. (ii.) In the verb three kinds of reduplica-
tion are found : (1) with the vowel of

Reduplication.

the reduplication in -i- ; (2) with the
vowel of the reduplication in -g- ; (3) with the whole
syllable reduplicated. The first form is limited, as
a rule, to the reduplicated present, the second
is specially characteristic of the perfect, the third
is confined to a small number of verbs. In Latin
the reduplicated perfect sometimes assimilates the
vowel of the reduplication to the vowel of the root :
mordeo, momordi for *memordi ; tondeo, totondi for
''^tetoTidi.

Gk. Lat

(1) Uara-ficv : si-aii-mua

t'€-fi€v : se-ri-mu8 ( = *si-89-moa)

(2) ri-rXa-iup : cp. te-tul-i
T4-Ta\'Teu I cp. pe-pul-U
d4'8(a-lKa] : cp. de-d-i

(3) ftop-iiAp-uf cp. mur-mur-o

Forms of type (3) are more numerous in Greek
than in Latin (cp. § 480,/). Greek has a type
peculiar to itself in forms like Trat-TraXXo), Bat-
SdWoD, 7rot-<f>v(r(roi), the origin of which is not
clear.

A difference between Greek and Latin is to be
observed in the treatment of roots which Difference be-
begin with s- followed by a stop-con- p„"SdSpu^^.
sonant, when reduplication is required. "*^"'
From the root *8td' Greek makes a reduplicated
form *si'8td- (Attic X-arrj') for the present, which is
found also in Latin sisto, but in all other cases Latin
puts both consonants at the beginning of the
reduplication and only the second at the beginning

410 THE JNDO-GERMANIC VERB % 446 —

of the root: ste-t-l, spo-pond-l. lu such cases
Greek begins the reduplication with a-- only; cp.
€-<TTa-fjL€v with ^te-H-muSj e-aireia/juu with spo-
pondi. As the last Greek example shows, the
rough breathing which represents original initial s-
may be dropped, and no distinction drawn between
augment and reduplication. This confusion between
augment and reduplication occurs in some other
instances where the root begins with two consonants,
as in i-pKdaTq-Ka (but fie-fikfj-xa), S'/crfj-fiai, as
well as K€'/cT7j'fiai, etc.

447. (iii.) The voices of the original verb, as has
The voices of the already been mentioned (§ 439), were

^"^ the active and middle. Apart from the
difference in personal endings, the only distinctions
between active and middle in respect of form are
(1) that in non-thematic verbs without stem-suffix
the root in the middle is frequently in the weak
grade : i-arrj-fii, i-a-ra-fiai, Sl-Sto-fiiy Sl-So-fiat, eta,
although in the verb, just as in the noun, there are
some forms which show no gradation, Bi-^rf-fjui^, Kel-
fuiL] (2) that verbs with stem-suffixes, as -nejf-,
-Tia-, and probably others, show weak forms of the
suflix in the middle: heU-vv-fLv (§ 481, e), Sei/c-vv-
fjuu ; cp. 'jrip'Vrf-fJic with fidp-va^fiai.

448. As the passive voice is not an original
Thepwaivein voicc, it is made by each language in

Greek. j|.g ^^j^ "waj. In Greek the only new
forms distinct from the middle are (i.) the 2nd
aorist in -171/, i'<f)dv-r)v, etc. (§ 480, a), which is really
an active form with the same type of stem as is to
be seen in the Latin hdbs-re, tacS-re, etc., Goth.

— § 449 RELATION OF MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 411

Aa&an, J^ahan, etc. ; (ii.) the Ist aorist in -Oriv} which
seems to be a purely analogical formation from the
secondary ending of the 2nd perfipn singular of the
middle (§ 474, J) ; (iii.) the future passive, which is
a late development from the stem found in the 1st
aorist i-rvfii^'Ofi'V, rtfirf'0i]'<To/Mac ; i'X€l(f>-67)Vj Xet<^-
Oij-aofmu In some verbs the future middle has a
passive sense, e,g. rifirj-aofiav,

449. In Latin the passive is made in the same
way as in Keltic, by the addition of a ThcwuMivein
suffix in -r added after the old personal ^**°
endings. This formation is peculiar to the
languages of the Italic and Keltic groups. Its
origin is still to some extent uncertain, though
much light has been thrown upon its history by
recent researches. The whole paradigm seems not to
have originated at once, but to have begun with the
third person, Uke venltur in the sense of "one
comes," capitur "one takes," the subject of the
sentence being left vague, dicitur is thus originally
exactly parallel to the French on dit.
A plural form is not required, and this in the srd per-
original state of things ia shown in the
frequent VirgUian and Livian construction itur ad
silvam and the like, where itur may refer to any
person singular or plural. Such forms, when made
from transitive verbs, naturally required an accusa-
tive, a type which is preserved in the so-called

^ The aorist in -Srj- is sometimes transittve as in Archilochus, Fr,
12: el mIvov ice^Xf/v koX x^p^o^a ft^Xea | "H^ato-rof Kodapoiaiv iv
clfuLffw d/i0eroyi)^i7, and in a Corcyraean inscr. {D.I, No. 3188),
Upa^ifUpTis 8* auTi} 7[a(a]f dwb warplBos Muiv \ aifv Sdfup rdde ffctfia
KOffiyv-fiToio Tovfi$7i (cp. Smyth, loniCf § 634. 6).

412 THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB §449

deponent verbs. Here the question arises as to
whether the -u- which precedes -r is to go with -r
or with the -U pn^ceding. As such verbs in both
the Italic and the Keltic groups make their perfect
forms with a pa^ive participle in -to- and (in the
Italic group) the substantive verb/ it seems likely
that we ought to take 'tu- as representing the
original middle ending -to, to which -r is then
added. It is easy to see how a plural form veniurUur,
etc, is made to the original venltur. From this
we pass to a further stage where the passive sense
is fully developed, and this development calls into
being a complete paradigm by adding -r after a
vowel-ending: rego-r, and by replacing -m and -s
endings by -r : rega-r, regere-r ; regumu-r, rega-mu-r,
regere-mu-r. It is to be observed that the 2nd
persons of the present, both singular and plural, are
of a diflferent origin, seqv^re (§474, a) corresponding
to *hr€{(T)o (sequeris is a new formation), and
sequimini being a participle. The 2nd persons in
other tenses are formed on this analogy. The
history of these changes cannot be traced in detail,
because they took place at a period long preceding any
literature we possess, and most probably before the
Italic and Keltic languages had separated from one
another.^

^ Thurneysen in Brugmann's Orundriss^ ii. § 1080, n. 1. There
is no substantive verb in the Keltic passive forms ; cp. Lat. fusi
hostes^ etc., so frequent as complete sentences in Livy.

^ The greatest part of this explanation comes from an article
by Zimmer in K,Z. 30, pp. 224 ff., but with considerable modifica-
tions from Brugmann {GhruTidriss, ii. § 1079— § 1083). Others, as
von Plauta {Oranu ii. p. 384) and Stolz {Lot, Oram,^ pp. 158 f.),

§ 451 PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE VERB 413

450. (iv.) For the persons of the active and
middle voices there are distinct series Personal endinm
of personal endings. Within each* series toth'2cuv"^lnd
there are again two distinct groups — (1) ™*^*^^®-
primary and (2) secondary endings. This distinc-
tion, however, is not found in all languages. In
Latin there is no trace of its existence, the whole of
the endings being of one type. These primary and
secondary endings are thus distributed in both the
active and the passive voice.

Primary: present and future indicative, sub-
junctive throughout.

Secondary : imperfect, aorist and pluperfect
indicative, optative throughout.^

The perfect indicative active had an independent
series of endings, at leaat in the singular, separate endings
In the first person of the present indi- ^^v^^^^^^^-
cative active, the ending, if attached to the root
directly, is -mi; in the thematic verb the ending
appears as -d from the earliest period.

451. The following is a scheme of the endings

reject this explanation and adhere to some variety of the old view
which connects these forms more closely with some Skt. forms of
the 8rd pL pft in -r-. Here, as in many other instances, certain
decision will be possible only when systematic search, which has
nerer yet been instituted, has brought to light more remains of
the ancient Italic dialects.

^ The causes for this division of the endings are not yet finally
determined. Zimmer {K,Z, 30, p. 119 n.) brings it into connexion
with a peculiarity of Keltic, where the long form of the sufBx is
found if the verb occupies an independent position in the sentence,
and the short form if the verb is appended encliticaUy to a pre-
position. Thus we should have Indo-G. *bh4reti " carries " but
*pr6 bheret "carries forward" and in the Imperfect *4-bheret.

414

THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB § 451

which existed in the original active and middle, in
Scheme of per- ^oth their primary and their secondary
sonaiendingfi. ^^^^^ The Variations from this scheme,

which are found in the languages to be dealt with,

will be discussed later.

Active.

Middle

Primary.

Secondary.

Primary.

Seeondazy.

1 Sing.

-mi (non-thematic)
-5 (thematic)

-(m)a|

t

2 Sing.

-n

-s

-sai

•ao \

3 Sing.

a

4

•tai

to

iDual

-yss-i (-uos'i)

-J^ i-Uo)

-yedhai

-\iedh9

2 Dual

•ihes {-thos)

'tarn

T

?

8 Dual

^-tea

-tarn

T

t

1 Plural

•mes-i (-moa-i)

'mi{-mS)

-medh?

2 Plural

i-the

-te

udh+

-d*+

8 Plural

t)

f-ntai
\-ntai

-nto\
.ntof

452. In the list of forms just given it will be

observed that two forms in the active

constructing (3rd dual and 2nd plural) and several

o gna en nga. j^^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ middle are marked as

doubtful The reasons for this are — (1) either the
forms occur so rarely that Comparative Philology
can hardly hope to establish the original form as a
certainty ; or (2) the forms, though found in several
languages, differ so much from one another that it
is doubtful whether they can be referred to one
original

— § 464 ACTIVE ENDINGS IN GK. AND LAT. 415

Endings of the Active Voice

453. The thematic verbs, it will be noticed,
diflfer but in one person (1st sing. pres. Bndingsofthe
indie, act.) from the non-thematic The *^"^* ^°*^-
classification is convenient, but it grows continually
more probable that the difTerence be-
tween thematic and non-thematic forms non - them*tic

Verbs

is a diflference rather in roots than in
stem -formation.^ In Latin the difference has
practically disappeared. The sole remnants of the
non-thematic conjugation are the forms sum and
inquam, of which the former shows traces of a
thematic origin in its vowel: sum = *s-o-m from
the weak form of the root *6S-. In Attic Greek
the difference is preserved in the types (fyrj-fd and
<^6/)a) {(f>ip-0'fji€v), but the -mi type is gradually
being displaced even during the classical period in
verbs like BeU-vv-fit (SeiK-vv-to),

454. For the second and third persons of the
singular, Greek differs from other Ian- q^^ 2nd and
guages in its thematic forms: <f>if}€i^, l^^^^nl
(f>€p€i. These cannot phonetically re- »°<>«««ve;
present the original type Hhere-si, ^hhere-ti, which
in Attic Greek could become only *<f)€p€L (cp.
y€ve(<r)L, from 761/09, |L142), and *(f>€p€-<rt (cp. 7€i;6-
<ri- stem of yive-a-t-^, § 133). Under the influence
of the imperfect and subjunctive forms with
secondary endings e^epe^, (f>€prj^;, *€<^€/)€(t), *<f)ipr){T),

^ Compare Streitberg's remarks in his article on the accented
aonant nasal {IF. i. pp. 90 ff.), which has been already referred
to, and his more recent article, /. F. ilL pp. 305 ff.

416 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §464

the endings of the present seem to have been
remodelled into the existing forms <f>4p€t^ and

(l>€p€U

The forms of the subjunctive have later been
modified under their influence by the

(iiO of the pre- jj. . i» a.i_ j • j /

sent subuunc- addition of the -t -sound in <l>€pn^,

tive. . , ^ '^•' '

4>€prj.

455. In Latin the endings throughout are
Secondary secoudarj,^ but this might arise through

endinga in Latin, ^j^^ j^gg ^f g^^j ,^- according tO phoUCtic

lawa In the verb just cited, the second and third
persons are made without thematic vowel, /grs,/«r^,
a formation to which Skt. supplies an exact
parallel; agis and ag-it, however, represent the
ordinary type. So in English the oldest endings
are -is or -ea for the second person, and for the
third -etS from an earlier -it5, phonetically corre-
sponding to the original -e-ti. This second person
is still found in the North of England and in
Scotland — "Thou lifts thy unassuming head"
(Burns) — its place elsewhere being usurped by a
new formation -est The original third person is
represented by the (now only literary) form beareth.
The common form bears with an -e«-suflix is a
Northumbrian new formation.

456. The 1st person of the dual is preserved
Personal end- only in the Ary^H and Letto-Slavonic

IngB of the dual. " i . X , 1 .

i8t pereon. groups, and m Grothic

457. The 2nd person has in Skt. a suffix

^ If Thumeysen*s theory already referred to (p. 364) is
right, the Latin endings are all primary with final -t lost, final
-tU becoming -ns.

— § 461 ACTIVE ENDINGS IN GK. AND LAT. 417

'thas, which is now supposed to be also preserved in
the Latin -lis (in fer-tis, ag-i-tis, etc.),

1. 1 1 ., 2nd person.

and has therefore replaced the proper
2nd person of the plural. The form of the original
suffix is not quite certain ; but -theSj with a possible
variant -thos, seems most probable.

458. The ending of the 3rd person is in Skt.
4a8, which may represent an original

'tes. Greek has replaced both the 2nd

and the 3rd person by the secondary form of the

2nd person.

459. In the plural the Ist person seems to have
originally ended in -m«5-(i) and -mos-(i).

The former is still found in the Doric inp of the pin-
<^€/)o-/x69, the latter in the Latin feri- " * * ^"°"*
mu$. The Attic <f>€po'fi€v seems to be a modifica-
tion of the secondary ending. In neither language
is there any trace of the longer form with appended
-i which is found in Skt. and elsewhere. The
final -i, however, may be merely a deictic
particle.

460. The form of the 2nd plural is doubtful.
The Aryan branch shows a suffix which

requires us to postulate -the. The
Greek -re may be borrowed from the secondary
endings. The Latin -lis is apparently a dual
form (§ 457).

461. The ending of the 3rd person plural is
undoubtedly -nti : Doric <f>€po-vTi, Attic

<f>ipovai (§ 133), Lat. feru-nt, 0. Eng. '"^p"™'"*
bera-^ for *6«ra-n5, Gothic haira-nd. The sonant
form of this suffix gives rise to ld<Ti, etc. ( = *ijnti ;
2 E

418 THE INDO-GERMANIC VERB §461

Ado-t, whence on the analogy of XtrravTi (Zxrao-A)
comes XoatC),

462. The secondary endings require but little
Secondary end- commcnt, diflfering as they do in most
t?w wic?-(i?) cases from the primary only by having
inthesinguiT- ^^ ^^^ .^ jhc Ist persou in Greek

has -1/ for -m if consonant: i(f>€p'0'V, e-ffyrj-v; but
-a if -m is sonant : eSei^-a. In the optative <^6po£-
fjLi has a primary ending. One or two secondary
forms found, rp^^oAi' (Euripides),a/AapTOAi/ (Cratinus),
are formed on the analogy of the other persons.
The secondary endings are illustrated in Latin by the
imperfects mone-bam, etc., -iam being a secondary
tense from the stem of <^i;a), Lat/m, with 6 for/
regularly in the middle of the word.

In the 3rd person Greek loses its final consonant
phonetically, e-^6p€(-T).

463. The Greek -tov, -Tqv in the 2nd and 3rd

persons of the dual represent accurately

(iL)mthedual; f, . . , - ^ ^

the original forms.

464. Forms in other languages {e,g. the Aryan
and Letto-Slavonic group) seem to render it neces-
sary to assume a 1st person plural with no final

(iii.Mnthe cousouant. The Doric i^epo-fie^, Lat.
plural. fere-la-mus, are therefore borrowed from
the present, and the Attic i(f>€po'fi€v, <f>€poi,'fiev,
ihei^a-fiev} have the so-called v i<f>€\KV(mK6v,

i^p€'T€ and e'i\>epov correctly represent the
original ^i-hhere-te and *4-iheront

^ This form is difficult It seems better to explain the -a- as
an analogical insertion than to assume with Osthoff a suffix -i(ynun.

— § 466 MIDDLE ENDINGS IN GREEK 419

Bindings of the Middle Voice

465. Here certainty is less attainable than in
the active voica The ending of the Primary endings
Ist person is a matter of some difficulty. ;oiJ!*%8f ^i!
In the Sanskrit indicative it appears ^°'»^"8-
simply as a diphthong -^, which may represent -at,
-ej, or -oj, while in the subjunctive the ending is a
long diphthong of the same type. Most authorities
hold that the same diphthong as is seen in the
Sanskrit indicative is to be found in -l in the
ending of the Latin perfect active ; tutudl, etc.
These forms are then middle forms, but this view,
though generally accepted, can hardly be regarded
in the present state of our knowledge as more than
an ingenious hypothesis. In Greek the ending is
always -fiai. If the Skt. form is the earlier, the
Greek -fiai must have been influenced by the
active form of the 1st person in the non-thematic
verbs.

466. The 2nd person in Skt. and Greek repre-
sents the same original -saj. In Greek,

T , ^ , J 2nd person sing.

-cr- disappears between vowels, and con-
traction takes place. Hence *<^€/)€-o-at becomes
(f>iprj, then (f>ip€t. But in the classical period the
non-thematic verbs restore the forms with -cr-:
riOe-aai, SlBo-<raL, etc., possibly on the analogy of
forms like yeypayjrac, where, through the consonant
preceding, -o-- was phonetically retained.^ The full
restoration of -(rai as the ending was accomplished
1 G. Meyer, Cfr. Qr.^ § 466.

420 THE INDChGERMANIC VERB § 466

by degrees, and in modern Greek <f)€pO'fux^ gives
<f)€p€-aai, etc.

467. The original endinec of the

8nl person sing. « . ^ • //i t/

3rd person was -toj ; Ti^c-ra*, tfyepc-To^

468. The Ist person of the Greek dual has

nothing parallel to it in other lansixas^ea.

It occurs altogether in the classical
literature only three times (once in Homer and
twice in Sophocles).^ Hence it can hardly have
been used in the spoken language.

469. The forms of the 2nd and 3rd persons are
2nd and 3rd equally obscuTC. The Greek forms are
persons duaL probably uot old, and are possibly a

modification of the 2nd person plural in -cOe, under
the influence of the active -top : TiOe-a-Oop, ^6/9-e-
aOov.

470. The 1st person of the plural in Greek
ist person corrcspouds apparently to the Skt.

P^""^* secondary ending -mahi. i<f>€p6'fjL€0a is
then more original than <l>€p6'fjL€0a, just as i<f>€po-
fi€'V in the active is more original than {fyipo-fMe-v
(§ 459). The poetical forms in -fiea-Oa may arise
either under the influence of -irOe or in imitation of
the -/Lt€9 form in the active.

471. The 2nd person was no doubt originally
connected with the Skt. form -dhvi, but seems to

^ The fonns are Tepidfi/ieBoy, Hiad^ xxili. 485, \e\elfifudo9, Eleetm,
950, and tpfJubfieOoPf PhilocteUSt 1079. In every case there is some
authority for the 1st plural in -fuBa and in no case is -/Ae^or required
by the metre. It is no doubt a creation on the analogy of the 2nd
person, but of what date is doubtfuL Hence it is hardly safe to
attribute the form to the grammarians and read -fieBa wherever it
occurs (cp. Jebb's PhiloeUteSy 1079 note).

— § 474 PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE MIDDLE 421

have been recast under the influence of the active
ending -re. In any case it is probable gnd person
that the -<r- in -aOe was originally no p^"*^*
part of the sufl&x, but came in phonetically in such
forms as ireTreva-Oe, whence it was generalised
everywhere. Some think the ending -aOop of the
dual corresponds to the Skt. secondary ending in
-dhvam. It was then transferred from plural to
dual under the influence of -rov, and -a-Oe was a
new formation after -re}

472. The 3rd person originally ended in -ntai,
the -n- in the sufl&x becoming a sonant grd person
after a preceding consonant. Hence ^^^^'
the perfect forms yeypd^arai, rerev^araiy etc.,
where -a- in the penultimate syllable represents -n-.
(Cp. secondary herdx-cLTOy etc.) The suffix appears
analogically after a vowel in ^epKrjaTai, etc.

The subjunctive follows the indicative closely
throughout.

473. As in the active, the secondary secondary end-

J- • u i. Ti..i ^ "^ ings of the

endmgs require but nttle comment. middle voice.

In Greek the ending of the 1st person is -fjMVy
Attic 'U/qVy which has no parallel else-

, Ist person.

where.

474. a. The ending of the 2nd person was
oririnally -so, which is preserved in

^1 T ^- 4. • •«. • 2nd person.

many languages. Latin retams it m

the suffix -re of the 2nd person : cp. Epic erreo

( = ^seg^e-so) with Lat. seque-re? The -cr- between

^ Brugmann, Orundr, ii. § 1063.

^ The other form in the indicative seqiieris is a new formation
which gradually usarps the place of the -re form.

422 THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB § 474

vowels is irregularly restored in ihiho-iro, etc. (cp.
§ 466), but regular forms as iriOov (for iriOe-ao)
are sometimes found in the literature.

b. Besides this ending there was another which
Development of s^ems to havc bccu Originally in -th^s
^"U 'flSS (Skt. -thds). From such forms as e'-So-
■ufflx-ttft. 0^^^ according to an ingenious theory of
Wackemagel/ Greek constructed the new forms
iSo'drfp, iBo-Orf, etc., thus making a complete new
aorist out of a single form.

475. According to Brugmann* the secondary

endings of the 3rd persons sing, and

3rd person sing. . ° , -it •

and plural in plural are to be seen m the Lat. agt-tur-r,
agu-ntu-r,

476. In the Greek dual, -aOov and -aOdv
Greek dual (Attic -cOtiv) are influenced by the

endings, activc forms, although -a-Oov may be the
original form for the 2nd person plural (§ 471).

In the middle, the optative takes secondary
endings throughout.

The Perfect Endings

^77, Greek preserves separate endings for the

perfect only in the three persons of the

endings in 8 singulsj activc. lu othcr respects the

perfect inflexion is identified with the

* K,Z, 80, p. 307. V. Henry (Bull. Soc, Ling. vii. p. xxix.)
made the same suggestion independently. Henry successfully
explains the forms in -vOrfi by supposing that the type began in
the -s- Aorist: ^(60'^s=Skt djUdsthds.

a Orundriss, iL §§ 1057, 1069.

— § 478 ENDINGS OF THE PERFECT 423

primary forms found in other tenses. In Latin the
perfect is a curious medley of original perfect and
aorist inflexion combined in one paradigm.

The ending of the 1st person is -a ; Gk. olh-a,
etKrjkovO-a, Latin is supposed to have ut person,
taken a middle form in the 1st person (§ 465).

The 2nd person ended in 4ha, preserved in
Greek only in oto-'Oa (phonetically
= *olS'0a) and the old perfect ^a-Sa
now used as imperfect. From the later use of ^a-Oa
as an imperfect the suflSx is extended to other
imperfects, etfnja-Oa, etc. The ending seems to be
preserved in the Latin vidis-tl, where the stem
is an -s-aorist. The final long vowel is probably
due to the analogy of the 1st person.

The ending of the 3rd person is -« ; srd person.
Greek olB-e. In Latin this has added to it the
ordinary -^-suffix — vidi-t

XXV. The Present Formations

478. In that part of his great work which
treats of the verb, Brugmann divides all the forms
of the Indo-G«rmanic present into thirty -two
classes, thirty of which are found in Greek. But
the types represented by some of these thirty-two
classes are practically confined to a very few words,
and therefore, for the present purpose, a somewhat
simpler division is both desirable and possible.
Brugmann was the first to point out that within

422 THE INDO'GERMANIC VERB § 474 —

vowels is irregularly restored in iSlSo-ao, etc. (cp.
§ 466), but regular forms as iriOov (for irL0e-ao)
are sometimes found in the literature.

h. Besides this ending there was another which
Development of scems to havc been originally in -tUs
?S?ive *fiSSE (Skt. 4hasy From such forms as c'-So-
sufflx -«*&. 0^^^ according to an ingenious theory of
Wackernagel/ Greek constructed the new forms
iho'Oijv, iSo'Orf, etc,, thus making a complete new
aorist out of a single form.

475. According to Brugmann* the secondary

endings of the 3rd persons sing, and

8rd person sing. _ y' ^ . • ^i t . • ^

and plural in plural are to be seen m the Lat. agi-tu-r,
agt^ntu-r.

476. In the Greek dual, -aOop and -a-Odv
Greek dual (Attic -aOi^v) are influenced by the

endings. activc forms, although -adov may be the
original form for the 2nd person plural (§ 471).

In the middle, the optative takes secondary
endings throughout.

The Perfect Evdings

477. Greek preserves separate endings for the

perfect only in the three persons of the

endings in 8 singular activc. In other respects the

persons 8 ng. p^ife^ji; inflexion is identified with the

1 K,Z, 30, p. 307. V. RemyiBulL Soc. Ling. vii. p. xxix.)
made the same suggestion independently. Henry suocessfully
explains the forms in -ffdip by supposing that the type began in
the -s- Aorist: iyv<ha07is=Skt djtidstkas.

9 Orundriss, u. §§ 1067, 1069.

— § 478 ENDINGS OF THE PERFECT 423

primary forms found in other tenses. In Latin the
perfect is a curious medley of original perfect and
aorist inflexion combined in one paradigm.

The ending of the 1st person is -a : Gk. olS-a,
etKrjkovO-a. Latin is supposed to have ist person,
taken a middle form in the 1st person (§ 465).

The 2nd person ended in 4ha, preserved in
Greek only in ota-'Oa (phonetically

* *e^ /I \ -11 t 1 i» • /I ^^ person.

= oiO'Oa) and the old perfect f^<r-ua
now used as imperfect. From the later use of ^a-Oa
as an imperfect the suffix is extended to other
imperfects, etfyrja-Oa, etc The ending seems to be
preserved in the Latin vidis-tl, where the stem
is an -s-aorist. The final long vowel is probably
due to the analogy of the 1st person.

The ending of the 3rd person is -e ; srd person.
Greek otS-e, In Latin this has added to it the
ordinary -^-suffix — vidi-t.

XXV. The Present Formations

478. In that part of his great work which
treats of the verb, Brugmann divides all the forms
of the Indo-Germanic present into thirty -two
classes, thirty of which are found in Greek. But
the types represented by some of these thirty-two
classes are practically confined to a very few words,
and therefore, for the present purpose, a somewhat
simpler division is both desirable and possible.
Bmgmann was the first to point out that within

424 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §478

the present formation types must be included which
Present suffixes wc generally identify with other parts
K'";} futiw of the verb such as the future or the

andaorist ^^j^g^ r^y^^^ rp-k-tii ( = ^tV-tZ-i) wheU

compared with rp-i^o) shows a suffix in -s- which
is indistinguishable from the suffix found in the
future KoXel { = *fca\€'(a)€i), or the aorist ^Bea
( = ^iuejdesm)} Many roots seem to be found in
simple forms from which extensions are made by
the addition of some consonant or vowel suffix, the
original signification of which it is no longer
possible to trace. These suffixes, however, are
exactly parallel to the suffixes in the substantive,
and in many instances can be identified with them.
The relation between substantive and verb is at all
times very close : noun forms are being constantly
made from verbs, verb forms similarly from nouns.*
The details of the theory of root-expansion are
however as yet too little worked out to be suitable
for discussion in an elementary treatise.

479. The diflferent methods of forming the
Classification of present may be classified under seven

present forma- , _ *

tions. heads : —

^ Two forms of this sort may even be combined in the same
paradigm, e.g. Lat pr-em-o, pr-es-ai (Danielsson in Persson's
Studien zur Lehre von der Wurzelertoeiterung und Wurzelvariation,
p. 217 n.).

' In Persson's treatise mentioned in the last note this subject
is worked out at considerable length and the suffixes or **root
determinatives " are classified in the same way as the noun suffixes
have been classified above in Chapter XXII. A large proportion of
these determinatives no doubt consists of elements without an
original independent existence and a definite value of their own,
but arising by wrong division and adaptation of existing forms.

— §479 THEMATIC &* NON-THEMATIC VERBS 425

I. The person suffixes are added directly to
the root.

Subdivisions are made in this class according
as the suffixes are added to monosyllabic roots, or
disyllabic roots, or, as other authorities phrase it,
roots with a thematic voweL These roots again
may be reduplicated and may occur in different
vowel grades. The only difference be-

.1 . #» :i xi 1 Second aoriat

tween the imperfect and the second «nd imperfect

* In CUm I.

aorist is that the imperfect which be-
longs to the present stem has frequently a forma-
tive suffix, while the second aorist is made directly
from^ the root with or without a thematic vowel.
Thus the difference between imperfect and aorist is
one of meaning not of form ; sometimes the difference
is purely conventional. Hence there is no difference
either in form or syntactical value between e-^v
and e-^rfv, although we are accustomed to call the
former an imperfect and the latter an aorist.
6-^1/ and e-Xey-O'V (cp. S-Tutt-o-v) have frequently
the same syntactical constructions as aorists. On
the other hand eypa^ov as compared with eSpaxoVy
€l3aKoPf eBpa/Mov, etc, is obviously an aorist form,
which has crept into the present system, or, to speak
more correctly, belongs to a present from a type of
which few specimens survive in Greek. In Attic
Greek all noun and verb forms alike come from this
weak form of the root, but elsewhere yp6(l>o<;, ypot^ev^
are found, just like Bpofio^; and Bpofiev^:, etc. This
question will arise again in connexion with the
difference of signification between present and
aorist (§ 545).

426 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §479

II. Between the root and the person suffixes
there appears some form of a formative suffix in -w-.

III. Presents with a formative suffix in -s-.

A

IV. Presents with a formative suffix in -si-.
V. Presents with a formative suffix in -dh- or -rf-.

VI. Presents with a formative suffix in -U,

VII. Presents with a formative suffix in -jo-.

Classes II. to VII. may have forms of different
grades and with reduplication, but their numbers,
except in Class VII., are much smaller than those
in the first class. Latin throughout shows much
less variety than Greek.

480. I. The person suffixes are added to the
root with or without a thematic vowel.

(a) Boots without a thematic vowel and with-
out reduplication.

Gk. Lat

Dorio ^M\

Attio ^'Clj

It is to be observed that as in the substantive
so in the verb the root syllable varies in grade
according to the position of the accent. Thus in
Skt., which represents the original language faith-
fully in this matter, the 1st person plural of the
substantive verb is s-mAs where s- is the weak form
of the root. Greek, however, in this verb carries
the strong form throughout the present ; compare
on the other hand ^-fii but plural ifya-fiev (where

^ The original diphthong is shortened according to the Latin
rule wherehy every long vowel preceding a final -t is shortened.

— § 480 PRESENTS WITHOUT STEM SUFFIX 427

the accent of the singular cannot be original). So
also A-yj, but X-yL&f (for ^l-fiev). In some verbs how-
ever the vowel remains unchanged, e.g. verbs without
ini^Spd'V, ?.^i7-i/(Doric l-/8a-i;), l-<r/8i;-i;, «™^"°°-
€'l3aK7)'V, parallel to which in Latin are verbs of
the type Jlo (Jld-mus), fleo (Jle-mus), These
unchanging forms Brugmann supposes to be forms
expanded by means of a vowel suflix. But this
does not seem very probable. It is more likely
that this long vowel made part of the root.^ In
aorist forms the principle was no doubt extended
to forms which did not originally possess this long
vowel : i/3aK7)v, cXtViyv, and others of the same kind
may be analogical formations.

(6) Eoots with a thematic vowel, the root being
(i.) in its full form and accented, (ii.) in its weak form
with the accent originally upon the thematic vowel.

Gk. Lat.

(L) Dor. ^^p-o-MCf"^ r^i^,^

Teld-o-fuy : /td-i-TMU (§ 175)

e6-0'fuy : il>r-i-mus (§ 178)

(ii) Ay-o-fiof : ag-i-mus

ypd^-o-fuif : cp. r&d-i-mua

(c) Roots reduplicated but without thematic
vowel. Here as in (a) the root syllable may vary
with the accent or remain steadfast.

* This is admitted even by Penson, the apostle of "root-
expansion," in his WurzeUnoeiterung, p. 212. Ck)mpare also
Michels, 7. F, iv. pp. 58 ff. ; Hirt, Ablaut, pp. 76 ff. Fle6 however,
as opposed to the other persons yZe-5, etc., has a -}o-suffix, if it is
not itself a new formation after the thematic series instead of an
older *JU'mu

428 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §480

Gk. Lat

Dor. l-ara-Ti\ i\fMiil is a thematic form probably arising by

Att. l-ani-a-ij ' \ analogy from the form of the 1st per. pi.]

t'ord-fjieif : ai-sti-mus (if for *si'SUi-mus)

For other forms in Greek cp. Si-Sto-fii, ri-Orf-fu,
t'tf'fii, all of which remain non-thematic (with the
exception of such forms as iriOei for *€'Ti'Ori'T) and
vary the grade of the root vowel in the plural
« . ,. . Si-So-u€p, rl-Oe-uev, v-e-aev. Some re-
roots without duplicated roots retain the vowel un-

gndfttion.

changed, e.g, Si'^Tj-fiai (contrast i-OTd-
fULi). Latin cannot be satisfactorily compared with
these verbs as it has given up the non-thematic
type of formation.

(d) Eoots reduplicated and with thematic vowel.
In both Greek and Latin the root syllable appears
in its weakest form.

Ok. Lat.

yi-yv'6-fu0a : gi-gn-i-mua
tiro-fjuew (§ 148) : sid-i-mua

Compare also fil-fiv-o) (jiev'to), Trt-Trr-o) (wir-o-

/Aat), TL'fCT'O) for *Tt-T/C-ft) (€'T€K'0-v), f-CJ^-O) ( = *«i-

zffh-d from root of l^o)). The Latin sisto and sero
( = ^si-s-O, § 142) belong properly to (c).

(e) Besides the forms in (c) and (rf) with the -i-
reduplicatiou, generally called the present reduplica-
tion, there is another series of forms

duplication In With -e-rcduplication, generally called
the perfect reduplication. Such forms
are preserved to a small extent in Greek ; in Latin
there are few traces of them. Examples of non-
thematic forms are k€'k\v'0l, rk-Tka-Oi, and possibly

— § 481 REDUPLICATED VERBS; FIRST CLASS 429

elira ( = *^-J^-3W'^-wi) ; examples of thematic forms
are i-Tre-t^v-o-Vy e-tnT-e-ro, elw-o-p} In Latin tendo
possibly represents ^te-tn-o, a reduplicated form
from the root of ten^-o (cp. § 194).

(/) A still stronger form of reduplication, which
is crenerally called intensive reduplica-

^' ' ^ ji ' u 1. V Verbs with in-

tion, IS found m such verbs as rfv-eytc-a tenaive redapu-
(earlier Hv-^/c-ov) and the rare forms
ipvxaKOV, rjvfirairov.

(ff) The thematic vowel appears in its weak
form. To this type belong the Greek ifi-i-tD, Skt.
vam-i-mi, -e- and -i- respectively representing -?-.
In the Greek middle voice this weakened vowel
appears as a : xpifia-fiai, aya-fiai, etc.^

481. II. Eoots with a formative suffix in -n-
preceding the person-suffix.

Of these verb stems in -7i- there are several
varieties.

(a) The suffix appears in its strong form as
-nd', in its weak as -na-.^ The root syllable appears

^ As the root of etra, etTOp is spelt in Greek firom the earliest
times with -et- (at Gortyn feix-)) it is possible that we have here a
separate root with the vowel grade seen' in Latin con-vje-ium
(Brugm. Orwndr. L' p. 605 n.).

' If the second yowel of iiUia was originally 9, we should expect
it to appear as a, jost as in the middle. The vowel, however, may
have been -e- in the sing., -9- in the plnral, or it may have been
assimilated to the -e- of the root syllable according to Schmidt's
theory {K.Z. 82, pp. 821 ff.).

' According to Schmidt (Festgruss an R, Both, p. 184) these
verbs in -nd-, -n^- have been confused in Skt. with another series
in -na(}), -ni-, the plnral of such verbs appearing in -nl- in Skt.
Schmidt finds a stem of the second series in the Umbrian permimu
(§ 666, 6, a).

430 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 481

in a weak form, and no doubt originally the suffix
varied in grade in different numbers in

Verb! with ® ^i. X • .

suffix in -nd-, the Same way as the root vanes in
Class I. In nearly all Greek verbs the
vowel of the root appears as -t- ; thus Klp-vr^-iii
but tcepdo), wtX-va-fiai but TreXcuo, etc. The most
plausible explanation of this curious difference, for
which no phonetic reason can be assigned, is that
it originates in the parallel forms aKLB-vrf-fii and
a-fceSdd), which come from different roots, the former
being the weak form of the root found also in the
Latin scindo {-scidi) and in its stronger form mcaedo.
TriT'Prj'fii, irir-vcoy and irn-ve-oD probably have their
-t-vowel from the synonymous Trlirro)} Safir-vrf-fu
and irep'Vff'fii keep the original vowel ; Bv-va-fiai
carries the suffix through all its parts. It is
noticeable that a large number of the roots which
make their present with the -na-suf^ have also
forms with a suflSx in -ne}^ (-w-, («) ii below) ; thus
KepdvpvfjLC, afceBdvpvfii, irerdvvvfu. In Latin these
non-thematic forms disappeared before the thematic.

(6) -n-stems with a thematic vowel giving the
forms -?io- -ne-. The root is (i.) sometimes strong,
(ii.) sometimes weak.

(i.) With strong form of root.

6k. Lat.

rifi.-'pv : tem-no
Tir-wia (cp. a aboye) cp. sper-no

[TlX-wa-io] : peUo (-*pel-n5)

(ii.) With weak form of root.
Greek haK-vta ( = *dnk-7i0 from the same root as
1 This is J. H. Moulton*8 explanation (A,J.P, z. pp. 284 f.).

§ 481 PRESENTS WITH -^-SUFFIXES 431

in Eng. tongs, the original meaning of which is
therefore " pincers "),/cayLfr-i/ft): cp. Lat. tol4o ( = ^tl-nO),
li-no, si-no.

(c) The verbs found in Greek with the suffix
-avo' and, though practically non-exist- Greek verbs in
ent in Latin, well developed in several """^
other branches of the Indo-Germanic family, are
probably only a subdivision of the former cla^s;
the suffix -nnO' being a variant form of the other
exactly as it was in the noun (§ 395). This longer
form of a suffix is regularly found if the root
syllable is long whether by vowel quantity or by
position. In this series of verbs there is no
exception to the rule, but the verbs fall into two
groups according as this length (i.) belongs originally
to the root or (ii) is the result of inserting a nasal
before its final consonant.

(i.) The series where the root is long consists to
a large extent of verbs obviously derived ^^j, i^ng ^ot
from nouns and having shorter verb «yii»we,
forms beside them : cp. /cevB-avo) (k€v0'€oi), XrjB'dvo)
(\»/^-o)), Orjy'dvo) {OTjy-w, cp. 0ijy-apO'P and Brfy-dvrf),
au^-ava) (av^'O)) where both forms as compared
with the Latin aug-e-o have already been expanded
by means of an -5-suffix.

(ii.) The forms with an " infixed " nasal are very
common : Xa-fi-fi-dvo), Xa-7-j^-ai/®, Xa-v- ^^h "infixed"
O'dvw (cp. XriO'dvco above), d-v-S-dvoD, "*^*
^a-V'S-dvo), irv'V'O'dvo-fjuu (cp. irevO-ofiai), rv-y-jf^-
dvto, Oi-y-^'dvo), (fyu-y-y-dvo). By the side of all of
these forms the simple type is to be found in second
aorists and in substantives. That this type of

432 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §481

verb is not original is shown by the fact that there
is no exact parallel in any other language. To call
this nasal an " infixed element " is no explanation.^
Language so far as we know is not built up on
such principles. These verbs are much more likely
to be analogical formations, beginning possibly by
accident and extending as e,g, the perfects in -tUi
have extended in Italian from one original form,
Lat. zUti. Many explanations of the forms have
been oflfered, but none are satisfactory.

A stronger form of the suffix is supposed by
Brugmann to be found in some languages. He
also connects with this series the Latin cruentus
( = *cruyrn't0'8) and verbs like runcinare by the
side of the substantive runcina}

{d) The next type of -n-stem is formed of those
Verbs with njwai v€!rbs whcrc a uasal is inserted in the

inserted in root ^^^^ j^^^. j^^ ^^.j^gj, ^ Buffixcd. This type

is almost non-existent in Greek; <r<f>l"y'-y(D and

^ Cp. Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 596, 2, note 2 ; Griech. Gram.*
p. 289, and Thumeysen, LF, iv, pp. 78 ff. The relation between
this class and the next {d) is very close. In Skt., however,
the yerbs of this latter type have a stronger and a weaker form
of the "infix" in the sing, and pi. act. yundkti "he joins,"
jfunkthd "ye join," a fact which leads Schmidt {Kritik der
Sonantentheorie, pp. 41 ff.) to the conclusion that the "infix"
is -7U- with a weak form -n-. The type though Indo-Germanic is
decaying from the earliest period we find it. As some verbs carry
the nasal through all their forms, it is probable that the type
began with such disyllabic roots and was extended from them to
other roots with -n -suffixes. Thus Skt. andkti "smears," Lat.
unguUf carries the nasal throughout : Skt. ctktda ( = "^nktd-s), cp.
Lat. unctus', O.H.Q. aticho, O. Prussian ank-ian, O. Ir. imh
"butter." Hence Lat junctus^ though Skt. yuktds^ etc

> Gr%tndr, u. §§ 617, 622.

§ 481 NON-THEMATIC SUFFIXES IN -NU- 433

possibly ari-ji'/Sofiai, pe-fi-jSofiai seem its only
representatives. In Latin, however, it is very
common : fi-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-n^o, ta-n-go, pa-n-go,
la-m-bo, ru-m-po, Ji-n-do, li-n-qu-o.

In this series the formation is as difficult to
explain as in the last. The nasal, however, is
often carried beyond the present formation as in
fi-n-go, ju-n-go, pi-n-go, la-m-lo. In pre-hendo it
certainly belongs to the root ; cp. the Greek future
^eiaofuu ( = *j^€i/S-cro-/Ltat) and €-j(aS'0-v ("XF^')-
We may therefore conjecture, as in the last series,
that the nasalisation belonged originally to a few
words and was gradually extended to many others.

{e) Non-thematic sufl&xes in -ne^, -nu-, -nu-, -ny,-.

This type, though lost in Latin, is well
developed elsewhere, especially in Sanskrit and
Greek. The Sanskrit forms in the
singular always show the diphthongal -fm- in various
form of the suffix, the Greek never. It
seems, however, most probable that the Sanskrit
forms are nearest the original type and that the
Greek -i/v- is a recent formation, taking the place of
earlier -vev- by the side of -i/v- on the analogy of
the coUateral forms in -vd- and -vor. The root
frequently appears in its weak form. In classical
Greek the non-thematic are disappearing before the
thematic forms.

i. Verbs with root in strong form : Sp-vv-fii,
SeU'VV'fii, o-fiopy-vv-fu, d-piy-vv-fii.

ii. Verbs with root in weak form: ap-vv-fiai,
irrdp'VV'fjMit rd-vv-rat ( = ^tn-nu-) in Homer, but
ravv<D is more frequent.

2 F

434 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 481

Throughout this series the strong form of the
suffix is found in the three persons singular of the
indicative active, while the dual and plural and the
middle throughout have the weak forms, //cai^oi
and Ki^'xavfo stand apparently for ^iic-avF-w and
*KiX'OvF'(a respectively. According to Dindorf
the Attic poets always wrote Kirfyauio.

Some ten or twelve forms occurring in classical
Greek appear with a suffix -v-vv-fii, the previous
vowel being (a) short as in evvv-fii, afievvv-fii,
(b) long as in ^dwu-fii, pcovvv-fii, or (c) the apparent
root is disyllabic as in xepavvv-fu, irerdvvv'fii,
KpefidvvV'/u, aK€Sdpvv'/u. In Attic Greek we should
expect not Ivvvfu but el-vv-fu from *jf68-7i-, and
this form is found in Homer by the side of
iv'VV'fAL Brugmann ^ contends that the -a- was
restored analogically as in rip^Uaficu,
etc.,and that the new *%<r-vv'fu'^^A then
changed into ev-vv-fii. In the same way arose a-fiiv-
vv'fii and l^oovvv-fii from roots ending in -5. These
verbs then formed the model for other new forma-
tions. No forms in -avvvfii are old. 7rer,dvvv/u is
found in Aristophanes, the others mentioned not
earlier than Xenophon and Plato, while xopiv-
vvfu and aropivvvfu are very late * and
vw,i,t, . ^^^ formed from i/copea-a, iaropeaa as
parallels to the Attic dfi^Uvvvfu and rip^Uaa^

(/) The last of the -n-stems are the the-
matic forms parallel to those preceding. Here the
suffix appears as -nej^- and -n^o-. The former

1 K,Z. 27, pix 689-593.

^ CurtiuB, Greek Verb, pp. 112 ff.

— § 482 PRESENTS WITH SSUEFIX 435

is seen in U-vio-fiai bj the side of Udvca {e ii. above),
in Ov'vk'to (Hesiod) by the side of Ov-vtOy ^ „

f /I V .J o Verbs with sQfflx

and in virHcy-veO'iiai by the side of -^»- followed by

/ Ji.u u -4. V thematic vowel.

t<rj^-ai/a),tcrj^-ai'aa),ana tne snorter t«rj^©,
the verb thus originally resembling in meaning the
English imder-take. The shorter form -n^o- is found
in <f>0dv(o ( = ^0dvF(o\ ^OLvod ( = ^OLvFtal)^ and
tIvw (op. Ti'VV'fi€vo^ in Homer, Odyssey xxiv. 326).
The root vowel, which is long in Homer, is shortened
in Attic, exactly as in ^ivo^ (for ^ivFo-^). The
Latin minuo could be phonetically explained as
having either form of the suffix.^

Many of the -w-sufl5xes are frequently followed
by a -jo-suffix (§ 487).

482. III. Verb stems in -5-.

Here there is a close parallelism with noun stems,
the non-thematic -5-stems appearing in

m. . ParaUeltain be-

three forms -€s-, -9s-, and -s-. The series tween noun and

of thematic verb-forms in -eso- and -so- is

better developed than the corresponding noun stems.

(a) Non- thematic forms except in the aorist
are not found in Greek or Latin. ^Sea, Lat.
videram (with diflFerent ending) repre- Non-thematic
sent an original *{i')^eid-eS'm, Cp. 'o™*"-*-
also e-Scfcf-a and old Latin dix-ti. These forms will
be discussed under the aorist (§§502 ff.).

(J) Thematic forms are found not unfrequently
in Greek. They are more rare in Latin. Thematic forms
No distinction can be drawn between *"'*'•
denominatives like the Greek TcXe-o) from the
noun-stem *T€Ke<T' in tcXo? (cp. iriXea-aa) and
^ Brugmann, Chrwndr, ii § 649.

436 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §482

the more primitive verbs /icXa-(cr)-(k) (cp. xe-Kkaa-
rai), <r7ra-(<r)-«, T/3-€(cr)-a>, and av^-oD, the suffix
no doubt being the 'same in both noun and verb.
Denominative ^^ Latin the denomiuativo verbs of
verb« In Latin. ^^liGh T€U<o is the type in Greek have
become confused with the contracting verbs in -ajo- ;
hence gener-dre from the stem genes-, moder-dre
from the stem seen in modes-tuSy decor-are, labor-
are, etc.^ The -s- suffix added to the verb root
found elsewhere in Latin is seen, according to
Brugmann ^ in quaes-o ( = *quai8-so) by the side of
qtuier-o, in vls-o, in inces-so, arces-so, both from the
root of ced-o, and in accers-o which is confused
through identity of meaning with arcesso, but
seems rather to stand for ad-cerss-o, with possibly
the same root as is found in Greek iiri-Kovp-o-s ^
" one who runs up (to help)," and in the English
horse, Uterally " courser."

The reduplicated forms of this class, which in
Skt. make the desiderative verbs, are not found
elsewhere except in Keltic*

483. IV. Verb stems in -sko-.

These are the verbs generally caUed inceptive
verbs.^ They are formed with a suffix which we

^ The cause of the confusion must have been the existence of -d-
stems de7eloped from -«- stems (cp. yeve-^ by the side of y4pot)
which later disappeared from Latin except in a few words like
auror-ttt flar-a,

2 Qrundr. ii. § 662. ' Solmsen, K.Z. 80, pp. 600 f.

* Brugmann, Orunir. ii. § 668.

" That this name is inexact is shown by Delbriick {Syntax, ii.
pp. 59 ff.), who calls them "terminati^e," i.e. implying either an
action beginning (fii^K* t$i *'up and away ! ") or ending, though
many of them now express continuous action.

— § 483 PRESENTS WITH SKO'SUFF/X 437

have already found used scantily as a noun sufi&x
(§ 381). Brugmann treats this class

v.- 5 ^ 4-u ^ \ C Inceptive Terb8.

as a combination of the -s- (-es-) of
the previous class and the sufl&xes -ko- and -^o-}
He holds that besides the forms with -A- there
were also in the original language forms with -kh-.
But this requires further investigation.

In this class there are two types — (a) those
in which the suffix is added to the simple root,
(6) those in which the root has reduplication.
The second type is found only in Greek and
Latin.

(a) This type is common in both Greek and
Latin. Gk.: /Sd-a-KO}, ^jxi-a-tcto, jSo-aKO), Xd-o-tco) (for
*XaK'O'K(0 cp. e-Xa«-o-j/), Ovrj-aKto better authenti-
cated as dv^afco) with a suffix na/co- found in evp-
laKw, oKla-KOfiai, etc. The origin of this byform
is not clear. It cannot, however, be separated from
the ending found in substantives : oU-Io-kO'^, TraiS-
la-K-rjy etc.^ Latin : hi-sco, sci-sco, pa-sco-r, posco
( = *porC"8co ; -or- representing -r- and the root
being the weak grade of that found in prec-o-r,
proC'U'S : cp. German for-schen), misceo stands for
*miC'Sc-eip ; cp. fdtr^to if for ^fiitc-a-tcoD, -7- appear-
ing through the influence of fily-w-fit.^ In English,

^ Grundr. iL § 669.

' J. Schmidt contends (BerichU d, Berlin. Akad. Dec. 14, 1899)
that -t- here represents the weak grade of -ej- and -di- stems, as
the -t-forms in Greek have often paraUel forms in -17- and -u- :
eifp-l-ffKVf €vp-ij'<rv, dX-f-o-iro/uu, dX-oi-o'o/Mu. See now K.Z, 37, pp.
26 if.

' Wackemagel {K.Z, 38, p. 39) contends that fdcyu may be a re-
duplicated form ^mi-mzgo from the root seen in Lat. mergo {*mez^-).

438 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 483

wdsh ( = *y4it'Skd from the root in water) and tinsh
(§ 381) are examples of this formation.

In both languages a number of forms of this
kind are found by the side of simpler
Bide of simple verb foHus, in which case the suffix in
sko is generally added to the suffix
found in the simple verb. SpeciaUy noticeable in
this connexion are the imperfect and aorist forms
found in Homer and Herodotus specially as iter-
atives.

la/c€ " he was," cp. O. Lat. escit ( = est) in the
Fragments of the XII. Tables; Bia<j>0€lp€a-fcov,
<l)€vy€(r/cop, Xd/Seo-tcov. These forms are never aug-
mented. In Latin we have forms like albesC'ere
by the side of cdb^-re, turgesc-ere by the side of
turgi-re, obdormi'Sc-ere by the side of dorml-re.
The vowel preceding -sc- speedily came to be felt
as part of the suffix, which is then extended in
this new form to other stems. Many verbs with
the -sA:o-suffix in Latin are formed directly from
noun-stems : arbor-esc-ere, flamm-esc-ere, etc.

(b) The reduplicated form is found in only one
Reduplicated vcrb in Latin : disco ( = *di'dC'Sc6) : Gk.
inceptives. 8i'Ba{K)'<rK0i>, A fcw othcr verbs are
found in Greek, some of them common : yL'yv<0'(nca),
/n-fivq-frKw, l3i'/3p(!)'a'K(o ; others are Homeric : ri-
Tv{K)-a'KO'fiai, cp. the byform re-rva-tcero with re-
duplication in 6, which is shown also by Hckw
( = *F€'FiK'0-Ka>).

484. V. Verb stems in -to- (-^).

Persson^ finds this suffix in nineteen original

* ^ Wurzeler^eiterung, pp. 28 ff.

— § 486 PRESENTS WITH DENTAL SUFFIXES 439

forms, amongst which he includes Lat. ver-to (Eng.
worth in "Woe worth the day!") where -t- is
ordinarily recognised as part of the root; Gk.
Sariofiai "divide" (cp. Sa-t-©), irariofiai (cp. Lat.
Tpasco)] Lat. fateor and othera. As a present
sufl&x it is found in a few words : Gk. ireK-rw, Lat.
pec-to, 'Eng. Jight {Scotch fecht) ; lAt. plec-to, Grerman
flechten. Forms with -U but without the thematic
vowel are found only in Aryan.^

485. VL Verb stems in -dh- and -c?-.

These suffixes sometimes appear side by side as
expansions of simpler roots. Thus from the root
found in the Latin aUo, Gk. ai/-aX-To-9 " insatiable,"
come " expanded " forms aX-d-o-fiat, aX-O-aivca and
aX-S-o-/Ltai, aX-S-atW ; compare fioK-O-aKo-^, Eng.
mild, with a/LtaX-S-vi/©.^ In Greek the suffix -dh"
of the present (which includes morphologicaUy the
second aorist, § 479) is specially common: jSpi-Oo),
fii'Vv-0<D, ^\€y'€'0(o, irprj'ddDt eo-'Oco (and ia-OUo ;
root *ed' in Lat. ed-o, Eng. eat) ; e-axe-Oo-v, c-kui'
Oo'V, In Latin gavd-e-o is apparently the same
as fq-de-fo { = *ydF'€'0-€(0y In Greek ^-S-oftat
compared with eX-Tr-tfo) shows a -d-suffix (cp. iiXScop
" hope "). In Latin sallo " salt " represents *8aldo
and corresponds exactly to the English word.

486. A number of other consonant suffixes
might be postulated, as for example in Gk. gh (;^)
in (nrip-^'O-fiai ; t/^u-^^o), cp. rpv-oD, '^'%(o, cp.
i^acD, etc. But none occupy such an important

^ Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 679.

* Perason, Wurzelerweiterung, pp. 46 f.

' Perason, loe» eiU

440 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §486

position as those already mentioned, nor as a rule
is the suffix confined to the present, though some
verbs, on the other hand, show nothing but pre-
sential forms.

487. VII. Verb stems in -jo-.

This is a wide-reaching series including a con-
siderable variety of types. As in the

VerbB with -^f*- Pi.- fu ^ • 4.U

Baffix mainly nouu foHuatiou we saw that -io- was the
great adjective-formmg sufinx, so m the
verb it is the great denominative-forming suffix.
It thus is pre-eminently a secondary suffix in both
noun and verb. In the noun, however, there were
primary forms which contained this suffix (§ 402) ;
in the verb also it has a primary value. In the
verb as in the noun the suffix has gradation, cp.
Lat. cwp'iunt and cap-it

(a) The suffix is appended directly to the root.

Primary .<o- which may appear in (i.) a strong or (ii)

Ktema. ^^ woak form. There are also some

roots which (iii.) end in a long vowel (cp. Class I. a).

Ok.

Lat

(i.) X««J<r(r«( = 'X«;ic-i«)

cp. 'Spec'io

etU^u^ {==*i»hen-i6)

cp. fer-io

(ii.) x«^p«(='xr-i«)

hor-ior

pab^u,{ = *^rii-i6)

vmio

(iii.) dpd-w

cp. nd (inf. nd'te)

(b) There are a few forms with intensive redupli-

Redupiicated c^tion as aia<T(o ( = *Fai'FiK'j^<o) and

-io-stema. *rrop'j>vp'<o ( = *7rop'<j}vp'j^) with which

^ According to the old theory revived hy Conway that -nj-
becomea -nd- in Latin, -fendo is the exact equivalent of Btlwia.
But this theory is at present not proven.

— §487 PRESENTS WITH SECONDARY SUFFIXES 441

Brugmann compares in Latin tin-tinnio, an obviously
onomatopoetic word.

(c) The -jo-sufl&x is secondary, being added after
another sufl&x as (L) -ti-, (ii.) s-, or (iii.) secondary io-
to an actually existing noun stem. ■*•"'*

(i.) According to Brugmann ^ the verbs in Greek
which have a long vowel preceding -v- are of this
origin : /cpfveo, icXfpa), 6ptp<o, oTp6v(o. The suflBx
in the form -^-jo- is very common in Greek, -aivo-
making many new verbs. Hence comes Kp-alpw (cp.
Kp'ovo-^), but most of these forms come from noun
stems in -n- (^356 AT.). Sometimes -n- is " infixed "
in the root; TrrtWo) ( = *7rTti/a--j^a), §188), lAt pins-o,

(ii.) The forms in -s + jp-, which survive in the
classical languages, are future in meaning. For the
futures see §§ 491 fP.

(iii.) The noun stem may be of any of the types
which have been ahready discussed (^ Denominatives
344 fiP.). Thus we find from a labial *°^«^^-
stem ^okiirTCi) ( = *;;^aX€7r-t©), from a dental stem
SeKa^co {B€KaB'\ Kopva-ato (KopvO-), from a guttural
stem /crjpvaa-oi) (KrjpvK'), pMari^to (jjuLaruy-), from an
-5-stem reXeuD (Homer), reXco) (tcXco--) ; from -n-
stems iruiLva), Te/cTaivco, 7roifialv<o, ovofiaivw, after
which many analogical formations are produced,
\€vtcaiv(o, TTiKpaivw, etc. ; from -r-stems reKfialpfo,
and parallel to forms with thematic vowel ixOaipo)
{iX^pO'), yepaipco (7€/3a/3o-),etc ; from -i-stems firjvito,
Koi/ico ; from -u-stems ap^Xuo), fiedvo) ; fiaaiXevo),
vofjL€voi> ; from -o-stems ^iXi-w, kvk\€-(o, and many
corresponding forms ; from -a-stems iretpd-fOf rt/ia-o),
1 Grundr, ii. § 748.

442 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 487 —

and a large number of others. As in the noun, so
in the verb, analogy plays a large part, and most
suffixes are frequently attached to stems to which
they do not originally belong. The -o-verbs by the
side of -^-verbs in such double forms as iroXeiiAao
and 7ro\€fi6(o, with a distinction of meaning, seem
to have arisen in Greece itself.^

In Latin the -jo-verbs are less disguised and
Denominative, therefore more easily traced : saep-io ;

In Latin, custod-io ; muT-io " cry like a mouse " ;
aper-io ; nutri-o (cp. nutri-x) ; siti-Ofpoti-or; metu-o;
cUbe-o ; turb-o, delir-o.

The -JO- type in Latin, though possessing a con-
siderable number of forms, shows but little variety
when compared with Greek. Apart from root verbs
like rapio, nearly the whole of the Latin -jo-stems
fall into a few categories. A large number of those
which have the infinitive in -ire are denominatives
from -i-stems, a second large series are onomato-
poetic words expressing sounds : gloclre, blatlre, etc.,
and nearly all the rest are desideratives, none of
which except esurlre and parturlre are common and
old. Words corresponding to the Greek type seen
in ^i\€-a) are comparatively rare. The root verbs
in -JO- which make the infinitive in -ere (some 25
in number) it may be observed have always a short

^ The series in -ou may possibly have begun with denominatives
like ^y6ia from *^yu)s (gen. *piy6otf cp. Liat riffOTf §237), ldp6ia from
Idpiis { = *gifidr68, cp. Lat. gQdor —*8)^oid6$), which has changed its
declension in Greek, though Homer has still IdpQ ace., ISpf dat.
Both verbs, as the manner in which they contract shows, are
chiefly Influenced by the long form of the stem (cp. Smyth, Ionic,
p. 566).

488 DENOMINATIVES AND CAUSATIVES 443

root syllable : fug-io, mor-ior, jac-io, qtuit^o, sap-io.
The causes of the difference in treatment between
these and the verbs which make the infinitive in
'Ire are hard to discover. The simplest explanation
seems to be that, apart from denominatives from
-i-stems, only those verbs belonged originally to the
so-called fourth conjugation which had a long root
syllable, the suffix in that case appearing as -t}o-.
The number of verbs which conform exactly to the
type of audio, and yet have a short syllable in the
root, is very small, and most of them can be easily
explained as arising through the analogy of forms
akin to them in meaning.^

488. (d) We come finally to a series of forms
which in all Indo-G. languages except Sanskrit are in-
distinguishable from the -jo-stems already mentioned
as coming from -o-stems. These are

"^ , . Causfttives and

the forms used sometmies as causatives, intensives in
sometimes as intensives or frequenta-
tives.^ The form of the suffix is -^0- with the
accent on the first element, while in the denomina-
tives already mentioned the accent is upon the -jo-
syllable. Whether the suffix is or is not connected
with the suffix in denominatives is hard to decide,
but at any rate no hard and fast line can be drawn
between the two classes. The intensive or frequenta-
tive meaning often shades off into the meaning of
the simple verb, because it is a constant tendency

^ Bemeker, adoptiDg thia view independently, offers explana-
tions of the exceptions in LF, viii. pp. 197 if.

2 Delbriick points ont (LF. iv. pp. 132 f.) that in the Aryan
languages causatives have regularly a long root vowel, iterativea
a short one.

444 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §488 —

in language to employ emphatic forms where
emphasis is not necessary, and consequently to lower
emphatic forms to the level of the ordinary term :
cp. Lat. mlare and volitare, etc. Apart from the
original accent preserved by Sanskrit, there is no
difference in form between the presents of intensives
and denominatives, although where the causative
meaning exists they can be distinguished by
signification. The intensives, however, carried their
suffix throughout in some form (cp. Lat. mon-i-tu-s),
while in the denominatives it was purely presential.
But this distinction was soon obliterated. Examples
of this formation with causative meaning are in
Greek : <^o^-6o> to ^e^-o-fiai,, cp. ^o/So^ ; aofieao to
ae/S'O'fiat (rt. *tjfiqT^- " keep aloof ") ; in Latin, mon-eo
to me-min-i ; noc-eo to nec-o ; doc-eo to disco ( = *di-
dc-scd). In English we have parallel forms : fall,
fell ; sit, set, etc. The intensive meaning is equally
common : <j>op'€€o to ^ep-ca, cp. if>6pO'^ ; rpoir-^to to
rpiir-w, cp. T/^OTTO-?; a-KOTriao with its future
a-Kiyjrofiat from the simple verb, cp. (tkotto-^ ; Latin
spond-eo, cp. airhhto ; tond-eo, cp. rhhoi " gnaw." ^
Substantives are not found by the side of such
verbs in Latin, the interchange of -e- and -o- forms
between verb and noun being, except in a few
instances, obliterated.

In the examples cited, the root syllable appears

with root In always in the -o-grade, but it is also

weak grade, occasionally fouud in its weak form.

Brugmann cites ^ /tu-eo) Lat. queo (cp. part. in-ci-eTis

1 Brugmann, Orundr, ii. § 802 ; Delbriick, Syntax, ii. pp. 109 ff.
« Qrvmdr. ii. § 791.

§490 DESIDERATIVES dr* FREQUENTATIVES 445

= *irirc^-iens) and Lat. ci-eo " call, fetch," a causative
to the form found in kI-^.

In the Greek poets it is often hard to decide
between forms in -co and forms in -eoo,

/ J / e/ Confused in

e.g. between inrvw and irtTPeo), fnirrto Greek with other
and piTrrio), the difiPerence in Attic being
only one of accent, irirv^a or 7rtTv&, wirveiv or
TTiTveiv, etc.

489. In conclusion, it may be observed that in
each language new categories not represented in the
original language come to the front.

An entirely new formation in Greek is the small
sroup of forms called desideratives and

,. . / r«i -r . ^ . New formations.

ending m -creto). The Latm forms m
'Urio (§ 487, c, ii.) cannot be directly connected
with the Greek. The most recent explanation is
that of Wackemagel,^ who holds that the verbs in
-o-eto) arise through the running together Q^ek desidera-
of a dative case and a participle in such ^^®*-
forms as ly^elovre^ { = 6'^ei iovresi) "going for a
view," which precede in time the finite verb forms.
Other forms of the desiderative occur in -idfo,
fia07jTtda} " I long to be a disciple," etc. This type
is founded on substantives in -id in the first
instance.

490. In Latin the most characteristic independ-
ent development is the series of frequentatives in

.to ( = 'tdjO) which have the suffix some- L^tln frequenta-

times reduplicated : cp. dic-o (primary), ^"^^ *° "^*
dic4o (secondary, founded on the participle dic-tu-s),
dic'ti-to (tertiary). These verbs are often used
J K.Z. 28, pp. 141 ff.

446 HISTORY OF VERB FORAfATION §490 —

merely as the emphatic form of the simple verb,
although sometimes, as in cogo and cogito, the mean-
ing of the simple and the secondary verb is quite
different. In the later Imperial period, when the
language is decaying, the straining after emphasis
becomes greater and the number of forms in -tO and
'tit6 steadily increases.

XXVL The Fntnre

491. How far a future in -sip' was developed
Original ftiture before the separation of the Indo-Grer-

in -tip-. manic peoples, it is impossible to say.^
The Aryan and Letto- Slavonic groups certainly
possess such a future, but no Greek or Latin forms
need be identified with it. The Germanic languages
have no future form at all, but, when the necessity
is felt, develop the future meaning by the help of
an auxiliary verb. In Vedic Sanskrit the number
of futures in sjp- is very small.

492. In Greek there is a dose connexion be-
The Greek twccu the conjuuctivc of the -s-aorist

futures. ^^^ ^YiQ future, and it seems probable
that in origin they are one and the same. If so,
Set^Q) Lat. dixo are identical in both form and
meaning. It is, however, phonetically possible for
hd^fo to represent an original future *dejfcs^, and
as the history of -j- in Latin after -«- is still
uncertain, dixo may even on this hypothesis be the
equivalent of hel^to. The so-called syncopated

> Cp. E. W. Hopkins in A.J,P. xiiL pp. 1 ff.

— § 492 ORIGIN OF FUTURE FORMS 447

fatures in Greek, kclKSd, PaX&, etx^, arise from the
disappearance of intervocalic -a--, after a vowel
sound belonging to the root — /caXe-o-o), etc. The
Greek future passive in -Oriaofuii (\i]if>'0i^aofiat, etc.)
is not found in Homer. It is closely connected
with the development of the passive aorist in -Orf-v
(§ 474, b), which is also peculiar to Greek. The
relation of these forms to the second aorists in -tjv,
which originally belong to the active voice, is illus-
trated by the fact that in Doric the future passive
in both series is declined with active endings:
avarfpcuf>r)<r€l, <rvva')(jSriaovvTiy etc. (§ 635). The
forms eBofuii, viofuii (§ 547, ii.)> Triofiai, riko/jLai,^
y^i<o, and others, which are used as futures, may be
either perfective presents (§§ 543 f.) or subjunctives
of a presential (or second aorist) stem. Greek
developed independently a future from the perfect
stem in a few instances: coTiJfo), reOvq^to. It
occurs, most frequently, in the middle : TeTpiy^ofiai,
yeypdylrofiai, ficfiv'^ao/iai, etc. When the root form
in the future diflFers in quantity from that of the
perfect, these forms take by analogy the quantity
of the future; thus Xv-acj makes Xe-Xv-ao-fiat in
spite of \i'\v'fiat,

^ In Cretan inBcriptions, e.g, in the oath of the epfiebi of Dreros
(Michel, p. 29 b, Dittenberger ', iL p. 68), riKofiai t/nXodfr/ipios Kal
<pi\oKvdfau» *' I vnll be a friend to Dreros and Cnossus." There is
nothing in either form or meaning which is conclusive in favour of
one theory of the origin of these forms rather than the other. But
Hesychius glosses iSfcu by ^(r&fets and iderai by iaSUi ; in Theognis
1129 riofMt is present indie. ; xiu and v4ofML are of course found
both as pres. and as fut. In the Septuagint 4>dyofjMi, etc., are
found on the analogy of idofuu, e.g. Oen, zL 19, koI ^Tereu rd
dpyea rod oOpavov rdf <rdpKas aov dwd aov.

448 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §493 —

493. In Latin, apart from old forms like dixo,
faxo, the future is made up of a strang:e

The Latin fu- •^ _' _ . ^ . ^ »

tuwM are of three medley ot elements from many sources,
(i.) ero is no doubt the old subjunctive
of the root es-, parallel to the Homeric eo). The
future perfect forms arise from other verbs in a
similar way. Thus videro is parallel to FeiZew
( = *y>eidesO)', the special meaning of the future
perfect is attached to the form after the separation
of the Italic group from the original stock.^ (ii)
As has been already mentioned, the derivative con-
jugations form their futures in Latin by composi-
tion with forms from the root bhu- : amd-bo, moni'
bo, sci-bo. (iii) The history of the future of root
verbs, legam, leges, leget, etc., is more diflBcult. The
prevalent view at present is that this future is
made up of subjunctive forms with two different
suffixes, the 1st person with -a- and the other
persons with -i-? An older view, more plausible
in some respects but hardly tenable on phonetic
grounds, was that the forms with -^- in Latin
represented the original optative: fer-gs = <f>€poi<;,
etc., cp. pomerium (§ 176). But the change of -oy-
to -e- is hardly defensible in the verb.

^ Wackernagel, Ferm, Beitrage, p. 45, argues that the only
Homeric form is etSv, etdofiev, and that elSita, tlSQ is a later forma-
tion on the analogy of clSelriv, which he would separate from viderim
and connect closely with the stem seen in €^^'a'<l^, etc. Cp. Monro,
^.Gf.«p. 69.

> Brugmann, Orundr. ii. §§ 924, 926 ; Stolz, Lot, Ghr* p. 185.

— § 494 THE INDO'GBRMANIC PERFECT 449

XXVn. The Perfect

494. The notion of recently completed action
was not attached to the perfect forms in the primi-
tive period. The meaning was originally merely
that of an intensive or iterative present, a significa-
tion which in Greek it has frequently retained:
Pi^ri'Ka, earrj-Ka, etc., cp. Lat. memini, novi, etc.

The perfect is distinguished from other presential
forms (1) by its reduplication, (2) by

., 1 J /ON v -XT Distinctive char-

its vowel grade, (3) by its peculiar acteristicsofthe
personal suffixes. As we have seen
(§ 477), the distinction in suffixes tends to dis-
appear, and the other characteristics are not present
in every case. Thus o28a, Lat. vldl, Skt. vsda, Eng.
wot, has at no time any trace of reduplication.
Perfects like Lat. c^pi sedi with a long vowel and
no reduplication seem to go back to the primitive
language. Distinctions in vowel grade also are
not always present.^ Thus we have yi-yv-o-fmi :
ye-yov-a, yi-ya-p^v ; fiaiv-o-fiai : /lAfiova, fii-fjui-fiev ;
Kreivto : e-KTov-a (not in Homer), l-tcra-fjuev (where
the augment replaces the reduplication and confuses
the forms with the strong aorist *) ; ireiO-to : ttc-
iroiO-ay Tre-TTi^ff-fiev, where such distinctions still
remain although the weak plurals, even in . the

^ Latin is of no value for this distinction, its vowels in unac-
cented syllables being reduced throughout to -i-.

' The participle icrdfieroi in the simple verb and also compounded
with dxb and /card has generally rather a perfect than an aorist
meaning (Ameis-Hentze, Od, xvi. 106, Anhang),
2 G

450 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §494 —

Homeric period, are being levelled out. But the
majority of Greek verbs in the classical (though
not in the Homeric period) make the perfect with
a suffix -Ka {'X^) ^^ uncertain origin and disregard
the original difference of grade. Thus reivo) makes
ri-ra-Ka] <f>0€ipa), €<f>Oap'Ka as well as l'(f>0ofHi'y
vifUD, P€'vi/M7j'Ka ; reXio), reriXeKa ; ireiOo), iri-ireiKa,
etc. The Germanic forms (§ 48) seem to show
that not only the plural forms but also the 2nd
person singular was weak, but this is not supported
by the classical languages.

495. The attempts to find a satisfactory explana-
Greek perfects ^^^^ ^^ "'^^ ^ *^® Greek perfect have
*»■*«• all proved abortive.^ It might most
naturally be expected to begin with verbs whose
roots end in -k, e.g, ohMkeK-a from oXi/c-o) by the
side of oXo)X-a from S\-\v-/u, but there is not
sufficient basis for such an explanation. In Homer
the twelve simple verbs which form this perfect all
end in a vowel, a liquid, or a nasal, e.g. e-arrj-Ka,
'ir€'(f>V'Ka, l3i'fi7i'Ka, /ci-Kfj/rj-Ka, ri-dprj-Ka, fie-fiXTf-
Ka, fie-fipay-Ka. In Homer the number of forms
from secondary formations is also very small, but
in Attic all secondary verbs make the perfect in
'Kn. Along with the perfect forms in -Ka must be

' Osthoff, having argued at great length in his book on the
Perfect for the identification of the suffix with the particle k^v,
Doric ffd, soon gave up this explanation and connected it with
Latin ce in ce-do, etc. {Berliner phil. WocheMchrift, 1885, col. 1610).
Johansson {BeUrdge zur grieeh. Sprachhunde, pp. 91 ff.) assumes a
root determinative -q; etymologically connected with xh, and
probably in the primitive language an enclitic particle attached to
certain verb forms.

— § 497 THE PERFECT IN GREEK AND LATIN 461

considered the aorist forms e-Ori'/ca, l-Sto-Ka, fj-zca}
The Latin fi-c-l seems to form an exact parallel to
e-Orj-Ka, and hence Brugmann would attribute the
formation to a root-determinative in the primitive
speech, the working of which developed greatly in
Greek after its separation from the original stock.^

496. The aspirated perfects with <f>, j(^ from
stems ending in a breathed or voiced Greek aspirated
stop of the same nature, are not found ^^^^

in Homer, and in the early classical period only
Tren-ofjL^a and rirpo^a. In the fourth century B.C.
they become more conmion : BiBrijfa, ivqv<y)(a, K^K\o<f>a,
fi€pKa<f>a. They are obviously analogical formations,
e.g. the perfect of Tpiffxn) influencing that of rpem-w
and changing it from *T€-rpo7r-a to Te'Tpo<f>-a.
Such middle forms as T€Tpd<f>aTai (3rd pi.) occur even
in Homer, but must also be analogical,^ forms like
yeypa/M/iai from ypd<f>(o influencing rirpafifMi from
Tpiwo) in the 3rd plural by the proportional analogy
yiypafifiai: rirpafifiat =^ y€ypd<f>aTai : T€Tpd<f>arai.

497. The Latin perfect is an extraordinary
example of confusion between the origi- T^g La^i^
nal perfect and the original -«-aorist. perfect.

In such forms as vldl, cSpl, mo-mord-l (for *me-
mord'l by assimilation of the vowel in the first
syllable to that in the second), te-itU-l, etc., we
have remnants of the original perfect formation,
although the personal ending has been changed

' IfveyKa, which is often mentioned along with these three, owes
its -K- to the root.

• Cfrundr. ii. § 864 ; Oriech. OramJ pp. 826 f.
» J. Schmidt, K,Z, 27, pp. 309 ff.

462 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 497 —

(§ 465). In dixiy scripsi, etc., we have relics of
the -5-aorist formation. The confusion probably

arose from two causes — (1) identity of
Latin of -»4iori«t mcaumg bctwecn the two formations,

(2) phonetic identity in some forms of
the two paradigms. Thus some authorities think
that ^vldes-mos, the 1st plural from the aorist
whose subjunctive is vfdero, might phonetically
become similar to sidimtLs, a genuine perfect de-
veloped like Skt. sidimd} The -5- in the 2nd
person of both singular and plural is no doubt also
derived from the aorist, while 41, the suflfix of the
2nd person singular, may be a modification of
the original perfect suflBx -tha. The 3rd person
singular md-i4 seems to have the suffix -6- of the
perfect followed by the secondary ending 4 of the
aorist. The forms of the 3rd person plural are
extremely difficult. The double forms vld-erunt
(the penult of which is scanned both short and
long) and vldSre have possibly different origins.
Forms like dedrot {=idederunf) on inscriptions
seem to show that the penult of the type vlderunt
was originally short (cp. steterunt in the poets).
The form may therefore be that of the -^o-aorist
with the suf&x -nt representing an earlier ^y^ldeso-nt.
The type vldire is conjectured to have original -r-
and to be connected with Sanskrit forms of the 3rd
plural which show -r- in both active and middle.
Many other views on this form have been pro-
pounded, but they only show that our material is

^ J. Sohinidt, K.Z, 27, p. 828. But from *vide8'mo8 we should
expect *vidimu8.

— § 600 HISTORY OF THE LATIN PERFECT 453

too scanty to warrant any dogmatic statement as
to its origin.

498. The Latin perfects in -nl and -wl stand by
themselves. The conjectm^ of Schulze ^ Lati^ perfects
that the -w-forms arose from a combina- ^ "^ "^^ "*^
tion of the old perfect participle in --yes with the
substantive verb (*s5t?«s %moz giving sBvimtLs, *8iye8
stes, sevistis, and the forms being then generalised
for all persons) and Deecke's recent revival ^ of the
old explanation that -m* is the medial form of fui
have little to recommend them. Nor are serious
difficulties absent from Brugmann's explanation
which starts from mdvi, juvi • and makes pkvi, jUvi,
etc., to be formed by analogy through the parallelism
between mdtus, jutus and plstus, flstvs, while genui
is (after geni-tU'S) for ^gene-^i^l.^

XXVm. Past Formations

499. Of the tenses of past time only one requires
detailed treatment — the aorist. The imperfect and
the pluperfect, as far as their stems are concerned,
have already been discussed under their presential
forms.

500. The imperfect according to our classifica-
tion will also include the Greek second or strong
aorist, for, as we have seen (§ 479), there is no

1 K.Z, 28, pp. 266 ffl
^ Lateinische Schul-Orammatiky §§ 146 ff.
' Grundr. ii. § 875. Cp. Chadwick, BB, xx. p. 273, and the
discussion of the different theories in Stolz, Lai, Qram.^ pp. 174 JBT.

454 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 600 —

difference in formation between such aorists and
certain present forms, except that in the indicative
thej have as a rule an augment and secondary
personal endings.

The only forms in Greek which require notice
Gi«ek 2nd ^^ ^^^ foHus uscd as passive aorists :
•oristB passive. ^^^Xi;v, irpdinjp, etc. These contain
the same -S- which is seen in the Lat. Tnane-rmLS,
hahB-mus, etc. (§ 448), and in declension resemble
l-0i;-i/ and e-firj-v. They are therefore by origin
really members of the active voice.

501. In Latin all imperfects are made by a
Latin irnperfectB suffix -bam. TMs suffix is -now gcuer-
in-bam, g^^y rccoguised as being derived from
the root bhu- (bhe^-), although its phonetic history is
not without difficulty. It seems better to recognise
in it with Thumeysen^ an old aorist *bh^d](>m which
became in the primitive period *bhdm, Italic *fdm,
whence medially -6am, than to find with Brugmann *
the root determinative -a- in the form. The first
part of the form is an infinitive drB-bam, 0. Lat.
scl'bam, on the analogy of which amd-bam, eta,
were formed, scie-bam is a later formation than
scl'bam, on the analogy of -g-verbs. Lat. eram is
not the phonetic representative of *eS'm, Gk. €a
augmented 17a ; -am appears in er-am ( = ^es-em) on
the analogy of -bam?

^ BB. viiL pp. 285 fT. Bat even in this form the -a- is hard to
explain.

« Grundr. ii. § 688 ; Stolz, Lot. Oram} pp. 183 f.

' According to Bartholomae {Studien z. idg. Sprachgeschiehie, ii.
pp. 68 ff.) eranij etc. are developments of original aorist forma in
•d}-, with a weaker grade -9}- which became -t-. Hence Lat -bas

— § 502 HISTORY OF THE S-AORISTS 455

502, The -s-aorists play an important part in
the history of the Aryan, Greek, and
Slavonic groups; in the other lan-
guages such forms as occur are obscured by inter-
mixture (as in Latin) with forms originally distinct.
The -s-element, which appears also as -es- and -ds-,
is apparently the same as exists in Group III. of
the present formations (§ 482). The indicative is
generally augmented and in Greek is for the most
part an historical tense.

As in the present formations with -s-, the aorist
has both thematic and non- thematic History of the
forms. The latter owing to the weak {^'^ihe ''indS
form of the suffix in the singular of the **^®'
indicative might be expected to show a long vowel
or diphthong in the root syllable, and such forms
are actually found in Sanskrit. Greek, however,
has ceased to make any such distinction, although
in Latin rBxi, text, etc., may be relics of it. From
the root *d€jfc- the original forms of the singular
and plural would on this theory be as follows : —

*dii1c8'Tjik *ditc8'm4 (cp. § 464)

*de\k8-8 *dihs-U

*deih-t *dih'<hU.

From this Greek has constructed its paradigm
eSei^a, etc., losing the long diphthongs phonetically,
levelling out the weak forms of the plural, and
extending the -a of the 1st person singular to the

would represent *-bh^di8, -bat *bhudit, -i- disappearing in long
diphthongs (§ 181 note). 0. Lat. ftidSf fucU, etc, come from a by-
form *bhu^is, *bhi£j^it with loss of -jf-. For similar byforms cp.
the ace. *diiem which appears in Latin as dienij with its byform
*die7n appearing in Greek as Zrjv (§ 54).

456 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 602 —

other persons.* IBei^a*; for *IS€tf and eBei^e for
*eS€Af ('Jest becoming -ks phonetically) were no
doubt brought into being by the influence of the
perfect forms. In forms like l<m)(ra, erift/qaa, etCw,
-a-- was retained by the force of analogy from such
forms as erpe^a, eTre/i'^a, etc. (cp. § 322), where
-a- is phonetically retained, ^i-^ej^esm however
having no presential form; but olta was isolated
and the form passed into ^fi-FeCbea (cp. § 445), ^Sea,
jfSi;. The Homeric aorists hiicro, efiiKTo, etc., are
-5-aorists, and represent ^BiK-a-ro, ^l/uK-a-ro, etc.,
-a- phonetically disappearing between two stop
consonants.^

503. The thematic forms are regularly found in
the subjunctive: Sel^w, etc., and in some impera-
tives : olae " bring " (cp. fut. ola-m), as well as in the
Homeric " mixed " aorist /carefii^a-ero, iBvaero, and
the like, the meaning of which is often that of
the imperfect.*

Greek develops many aorist forms to types which
should be presential only. Thus expiva, iBlBa^a,
a>v6fjir)va, Tjfyn-cura as well as rjpira^a {dpirarf-), etc.

^ Cp. Bruginann, Or, Gh^am.* p. 316, who finds the root-form
*deik8- originally in the subjunctive. On Streitbei^s theory (see
note after § 265) the original form of the singular of the indie
would be *deik8rp>f etc.

^ A new theory of these aorist forms has been propounded by
Mr. F. W. Walker {CI, Rev. vii. pp. 289 ff.), who holds that -«-
forms of a non- thematic subj. and future combined with an -s-
optative and -^-infinitive produced in ** Graeco-Italian'* the -a-
indicative with the personal endings of the perfect

» Monro, H. 6?.« § 41. Cp. Wackemagel ( Verm. BeUrdge, p. 47),
who regards them as coming from presents in •ff{<r)ofiai, P'^{<y)otiai
standing in the same relation to fiefieubf as wn^au to Teimyc^s.

— § 607 HISTORY OF THE PLUPERFECT 457

504. The stronger form of the sufl&x -es- is found
in ^Sea mentioned above, in i/copia-drj^ Aorist stems in
and other forms of these two types, ■«••"»'*•*••
while '98- appears in ia/ceSda-Ot)^, etc. (§ 474, b)^ and
commonly in Sanskrit. Brugmann^ postulates for
Latin vidis-tis, etc., an aorist in -h- ; but this seems
doubtful

505. The remaining preterite forms are develop-
ments within the separate history of the individual
languages. In the original language there was
apparently no such form as a pluperfect.

506. The Greek pluperfect forms arise, no
doubt, through the influence of 'pBea by orwk pluperfect
the side of olSa, from the addition of '**""*'
the aorist suffix -es- to the perfect stem. Hence
i'7r€7roL0'€(a)'a, i'Treiroidi] (the ending in Attic of
the fifth century B.C. is -17) ; iirerroidea^, iireiroiOi]^ ;
iTreTToidee, iir€iroiOu{v), The plural should be in
*'e<r-fi€v, *-€a--T€, -ea-av (as in the aorist), but
from the 3rd plural new forms in -cfiei/, -ere are
made for the other persons.* The long forms of
the singular lead to a confusion in the later Attic,
so that '€ifi€v, -€tT€, -eurav are introduced in the
plural, and -ecv in the first person singular.*

507. The Latin pluperfect forms are parallel to
the Greek development ; vlderam being Latin pluperfect
an obvious counterpart to yBea, The '°™*"
form of the ending -am is difficult. The simplest

> Brugmann, Qrundr, ii. §§ 836, 840. * Orundr, ii. § 841.

' Brugmann, Orundr, ii. § 836.

* Cp. Rutherford, New Phrynichvs, pp. 229 ff. Wackemagel
{K.Z, 29, p. 126) holds that the plural became phonetically
*{fSet/tcF, *'id€ffT€, and analogically iBeirt.

468 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 607

explanation seems to be that it comes by propor-
tional analogy from tram; ero: videro = eram:
videram}

The future perfect forms in Latin have already
been discussed (§ 493).

XXIX. The Moods

508. From the primitive period there existed,
apart from the formations already considered, two
sets of forms having separate formative suflixes,
and in the one paradigm generally primary, in the
other secondary endings. These two groups of
Subjunctive and fo^ms are the subjunctive and optative,
optative, jj^ them difference of formation is easier
to discern than difference of meaning. Both groups
are used in senses closely akin to the future as well
as in other significations, as deliberation, wishing,
and the like (§§558 ff). These subjunctive and
optative forms exist side by side with indicative
formations from present, perfect, and aorist types.
In most languages these forms are dying out from
the earliest historical period. They are still extant
to a considerable extent in Vedic Sanskrit, but the
subjunctive as such disappears in the Sanskrit

^ Bartholomae {Stttdien, ii. p. 118) gets forms like vider-d-s, etc.,
direct from an aorist stem (cp. § 501, n. 8). Here, as in so many
other cases, the only hope of ever obtaining a satisfactory explana-
tion of Latin forms depends on the discovery of new material for
the early history of Latin and its kindred dialects, — material for
which in Italy no systematic search has ever been made.

— § 610 HISTORY OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 469

classical period, although its 1st persons remain
with an imperative value. Greek is the only lan-
guage which retains subjunctive and optative
distinct and with separate values; all other lan-
guages either like Latin confuse the forms together,
or lose one or both of the paradigms.

509. (a) The distinction between indicative and
subjunctive cannot always be easily

•' , Thematic subj.

drawn.* In Homer forms like ahsiTja- from non-the-
€-T€, ar/€Lp-0'fi€v, afi€LY'€-Tai are fre-
quently not futures but, as is shown by the context,
aorist subjunctives. Cp. also tofiev ( = Attic Itofiev),
7r€7roid'0-fi€v, Ionic (5 th century B.C.) awoKpwItei,
iroiTjaeh etc.

Hence we may conclude that non-thematic stems
make their subjunctives originally by means of the
thematic vowels 0 : e, which in other verbs are used
to make the indicative. In Attic these forms have
been replaced by others, but eS-o-/xat, Tri-O'/iai, x^co,
etc., if they were originally subjunctives, remain
now only as futures (§ 492). To this category
belong in Latin : ero, dixo, etc., cp. videro (§ 493).

5 1 o. (6) The question as to the suflSx for stems
with a thematic vowel is more difficult. Brugmann
would recognise for such stems two suffixes -a- and
-e- (-5-)/ both suffixes appearing in sui^.of
Latin: /er-as and/er-^, but -B- alone ti^«°^tic»t«^-
in Greek {*<f>€fyi]^, ^^eprj, which become, on the
analogy of the indicative, <f>ipjj^, <f>€p'p> etc.),
with -0- interchanging: <f>ep'(i>'/jb€P. There are
however many other views, perhaps the most

1 Orundr. ii. § 918, Gr. Oram.* p. 384.

460 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 610

prevalent being that the type ^kp^^ is the
original one, and that feras is a form whose -d- is
borrowed from some other type such as -Jam, -ios,
etc.^ But this analogy seems unlikely to influence
the subjunctive. In the long vowels of these forms
it seems as probable ^ that we have to recognise an
Indo-Grermanic contraction of a vowel suffix with
the thematic vowel, precisely as we have seen it in
such case-forms as the ablative and dative mngular
(^ 310-11). No analysis of the forms can at
present claim to be final The 3rd plural of both
active and middle keeps its long vowel through the
analogy of the other persons ; phonetically, ^ep&vri
(whence Attic <f>€pa)a'i) and <l>ip(ovTat should shorten
the vowel before the double consonant.

5 1 1. In the Greek subjimctive many analogical

Analogy in foHus appear. Thus in Homer we find

fonnaSlauni. (j^) crTV'<>'fi€v, l3Xi]'€'Tai, Tpair^-o-fiev,

etc., where the suffix is added as in ayelp-o-fiev, Uo-

fi€p (§509) instead of contracting with the root vowel ;

(2) the long form of the suffix added to the long vowel

1 Thumeysen, BB. viii. pp. 269 ff. Wackeraagel {K,Z. 25,
p. 267) holds that the -d- forms begin with such as sUr-nd-mu^
si-std-mtu, which are paralleled by the Doric dt^-vd-Auu, Arcadian
fffrd-reu.

» J. H. Moulton [A.J.P. x. pp. 286 f.) holds that there was
but one mood-sign in the subj. -d-. The formations were anterior
to contraction, and in non-thematic formations, the subj., having
always a thematic vowel before -d-, preserved only types like *yeid-
o-mos (perf.), *liiqs-e-the (-*-aorist), Un-n^-o-nti (pres.), the un-
accented mood -sign having vanished altogether. In thematic
verbs with accent on the thematic vowel we have *^idd-9'moa,
*^idd-9'they whence *yid6moat *ydditke, FlSvficv, FiSyire ; with
accent on the root, -d- kept its own accent, whence *bher(ha-mos,
*bJiere'd-the ; *bhcrdmjoa, *hherdth$.

— § 613 HISTORY OF THE OPTATIVE 461

of the root, ^1^17, yvol^, yvdxoa-t, Bafii^^ > (3) formB in
'{O'f where owing to the suffix vowel a different form
might be expected, Bvvwfiai, iiriarwiiaL instead of
Bvpdfiat, iiritTTdfuu (in Attic *Svvrjfiac, ^iTriaTrjfjLai)}

512. The special suffix of the optative appears
in two different forms : (1) as -i^- strong,

.^, ^ T^ .1. The optative

-I- weak with stems where there is no suffix of two
thematic vowel ; (2) as -j- with thematic
forms. Hence with the weak form of the root which
is regular in the optative of non-thematic opt of non-
stems: Sing. Vj^-m fix)m the root es-, thematic stemB.
*st9'ji'm from the root std- ; Plural *s-i-wi^, ^stn-rn^ :
Greek elffv (for *e«-j(^-m with the strong form of the
root), late pL €tr)fi€i/ on the analogy of the singular ;
aralrjp, pL aralfiev', Lat. siem (Plautus) = *«ij^m,
pL s-l-mt^ ; stem, pL stemvs. It seems most prob-
able that amem, amemus, etc., are made analogically
after such forms as stem, stemtcs ; dem can hardly
be the phonetic representative of the Greek Soti/i/;
this ought rather to be foimd in the old form du-im
for '"'dvr-em, like sim for ^sjfim, ed4m for ^ed-jfim, etc.

513. The forms from -«-aorists are preserved in
their original shape in a few instances optative of -«-
by both Latin and Greek: 6tSeti;i/ *^'*"^

{ — *FeiZea'^'v), Lat. vlderim. But the ordinary
Greek aorist optative, such as Sei^ai^, is a new
formation, as is shown (1) by its primary ending,
and (2) by its having the diphthong at, which is
obviously borrowed from the -a ( = -m) of the 1st
person singular of the indicative. The so-called
Aeolic aorist forms Bel^eui^, Bei^cie, 3rd pL Bei^euLv,
1 G. Meyer, Or. Or* §§ 680 ff.

462 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION §613

may be a late formation corresponding to the Skt.
-si^-aorist, which arises by a reduplication of the
-5-element; Bei^eiav = *S€i.Ka-i(<r)iflv. The other
persons are probably analogical The old Latin
dixim, etc, represent more accurately the original
type. The only Greek optatives of the perfect which
preserve the original type are such as redveUfjp,
iarairiv, where the root ends in a voweL^

514. The Thematic type -j- combines with the
Opt of thematic thcmatic vowel -0- into a diphthong -01-.

stems. rpjjQ (jreek original type is *0€/>-o-£-a
(-a for -wi), <f>4p-oi'^t <l>ip'OL, etc. <f}4poifiL and
(f>€poi€p (for *<f}€poi.vr) are new formations. This type
occurs (a) in all thematic forms of the present ; (b) in
the future iravtrot^, Trava-oi/j/rjp, etc., which are, how-
ever, formations within the separate history of
Greek ; and (c) generally in the perfect when the
optative is not formed by a periphrasis as in
TrerravKw^ driv, etc.

515. In Latin there still remain two series of

forms to be discussed — the imperfect

Latin imperfect , . ^. , , « . , ,

and pluperfect subjuuctivcs turoarem, vidSrem, legerem,
audlrem, etc., and the pluperfect subjunc-
tives tv/rbassem and twrbavissem, vidissem, legissem,
audissem and audivissem, etc. There are also some
old forms : nuncupassit, turbassitur, and the like. Of
the origin of these forms nothing can be said to be

' Only roots ending in a vowel with the exception of one or two
forms like ctifF, eldelriv presenre the non-thematic forms intact The
others change to the thematic type. Wackemagel ( Verm. Beiir&ffe,
pp. 44 ff.) contends that the -A-aorist had originally no optative,
and that the aorist forms -etat, -eie, etc., arose in Greek itself from
certain forms of the second aorist which have now disappeared.

— § 616 PAST TENSES OF LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE 463

definitely known, (i.) Bnigmann holds that they
are fragments of the -5-aorist with the subjunctive
-^-suffix.^ In m(fe-re-m, according to this theory, -^-
appears first as a formative suflSx vid^-

\ , 1 • ^ . /¥» 1 Three views of

and next as a subjunctive sumx, -sS- be- their develop,
coming -r^- ; in vidis-sem we have the
same subjunctive suffix appended to the aorist stem :
dixissem arises from a transference of the ending of
vidissem to dixim^; turhassim is formed on the
analogy of faoAm, etc. (ii) Stolz * attempts to
grapple with these difficult forms by starting from
std-rem for the imperfect subj., which he identifies
with (fja-Tffa-a and takes as an injunctive in mean-
^g (^P- § 520). Upon its analogy he supposes
other forms to be made. Such forms as dixissem
according to him correspond to the Skt. aonsts in
-si?' where the -5-suffix is apparently reduplicated.
But such Skt. forms are rare and late, so that the
Latin forms ought to be an independent develop-
ment, (iii.) Another possible explanation of these
forms is that they are formed of a noun in the
locative or instrumental, with the optative of the
substantive verb in its short form *sjfim, whence
-sem.* If so vid^-renij es-sem, Ugis-sem (with -^- after

^ Orundr, il § 926. « Orundr, ii. § 841.

■ Lot, Qr,^ § 112. This view he has now given up (Lai, Or^ p.
182) in favour of Brogmann's.

* P. Giles, Trans. Cavnbridge Phil Soc 1890, pp. 126 ff. The
phonetic difficulty of -is- appearing in a closed syllable is removed
if Goidanich's explanation of lacesao, etc. , be correct Goidanich
{Del perfetto e aoristo latino, Naples, 1896) contends that vidisse
comes phonetically from the aor. stem in -es- {*veid'e8-8e)f forms
that retain unaccented e before -m- like lacesao, eapesso having

464 HISTORY OR VERB FORMATION § 616

Ug%) are the original types on the analogy of which
other forms are built up ; vidJ^- is the infinitive form
found in vid^-ham, etc., %is- the sufiBxless substan-
tive found in the infinitive leger-e ( = Htges-i, § 280).
This explanation also, however, has some phonetic
diflBculties.

516. As already mentioned (§ 302) the original
_ imperative, like the vocative, was the

The impermtive.

stem without any suffix. But from the
primitive period certain particles were suffixed to
this stem, for otherwise the sameness of develop-
ment in widely separated languages could hardly be
explained. But besides these early forms most
languages have attached an imperative signification
Fivestageaof ^^ othcr fomis uot ouly Verbal but also
development nominal. Thus in the classical lan-
guages we find at least five strata of imperative
formations.

5 1 7. (i.) The stem whether (a) without, or (6)

with a thematic voweL This distinction
tiVe is the bare hardly applies in Latin, where almost
all verbs have become thematic,
(a) t-oTff, Kp'qfi-vff, irlfi-TTfyrj, BeU-vu. Forms
like riOei, lci, BiBov are formed on the analogy of
stems with a thematic voweL Lat. es " be " possibly
belongs to this category ; Lat. I " go " = *tfj.

(6) <f>€p€, a/y€, IBe,^ etc. Lat fer, age, lege, etc.

originally a long yowel (p. 17). The ordinary pluperfect he regards
as arising by proportional analogy from the pft infin. deiace : daxem
=veidi3se: veidissem.

^ The accent of the five ozytone imperatives €It4, i\$4, eifpi, IBi^
Xa/3^ is that which such imperatives originally had at the beginning
of the sentence (Brugm. Grundr. iL § 958).

— § 619 HISTORY OF THE IMPERATIVE 465

In forms like rape, cwpt we seem to have the re-
duced form of the -jo-suffix becoming « (cp. mart
" sea " for *mari\ and with these must be compared
sarcl, farcl, audi, etc. (§ 487). The history of the
types aTod, vide is doubtful; they may represent
^arriaie, *videie, or be original uncontracted forms
from the types ^amd-mi, ^vidS-mi (cp. § 480, n. 2).
The latter seems more probable.

518. (ii.) With a suffix *'dhi. Such impera-
tives are found in the Aryan, Greek, and /y ) ^he impcra-
Letto-Slavonic groups only, and there Jire!„!ftic''%"t2m
with none but non-thematic stems. This "*"*^*'
suffix was probably an adverb originally.^ Examples
are common. kKv-Oc, Ki-KXv-Oi, Te-TKa-Oi, arfj-Oi,
yv&'0i, i'Oi, but ef-€t (Aristoph. Clouds, 633 ^), la-'Oi
( = *FiB-0i), laOi " be " = *<r.0i,^ Zend z^i, BU(o.0i,
TKr)'0i,, 8p'W-0t, etc. From second aorists like
rpd'jn]'0i, <f>dv7}-0i it is attached to the new 1st
aorist passive with dissimilation of -5- into -t-
after the preceding aspirate : \€L<f>0r)-ri, etc.

5 1 9. (iii.) With the suffix *'tdd, the ablative of
the pronoun. Thus ^hJUre-tOd would

mean originally " bring from that," " bring tiv'e is the stem
here." This type of formation is con-
fined to the Sanskrit, Greek, and Italic branches.
It is used with (a) non-thematic and (6) thematic
stems indifferently.

(a) ecr-TG), Lat. es-to ; f-rco, but Lat. l-to ( = *6j-

* Brugm. Qrwndr, ii. § 959, after Thurneysen.

' Doubted by some critics (cp. irei. Frogs, 1416). Veitch (Oreek
Verba) takes it as a present with fut. sense.

3 ^-=r original %- before -dM, according to Thumeysen's theory,
K.Z, 30, pp. 361 ff.

2 H

466 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 619 —

idd^\ /A€-/ita-TG>, Lat. me-men-^o. In the non-
thematic forms the stem, if it has stem-gradation,
is generally weak.

(6) <f}€p€'T(o, but Lat. fer-to possibly non-
thematic; wyi'TO), Lat. affi-to, etc. That these
forms could be used for either 2nd or 3rd person is
a natural result of the original value of the impera-
tive, which, having no personal endings, may be
used for any person and is practically equivalent
to an interjection.

520. (iv.) With the use of injunctive, t.c. un-
(iv.) Injunctive augmented indicative forms with second-
as Imperative. ^^ eudiugs, WO rcach the possibility of
making a dual and plural to the imperative. Thus
in Greek $€<:, S09, 69, cr;^69 seem to be the 2nd
singular of such unaugmented forms, but in the
first three we should expect *0^<:, *Bm, *^9.^ Ac-
cording to Brugmann,^ fer " bring " belongs to the
same category, and he supposes that on this analogy
die, due, and fac are made. But all four may also

* Other forms are etff-^pci, fK'<f>pcSf fviaires, 6iycs, in a yase inscrip-
tion from Orvieto 8^* dpeXi) koI fie Biyes (which Kretschmer,
Faseninschrifien, p. 91, reads /** Wiyej), and A7CI in Hesychius,
glossed dye, ^pe. (See Wright, Harvard Studies, vii. p. 91.)
Streitberg shows (FerhaTidlungen d, iAUn Vers, d, detUschtn Phil,
1897, p. 165) that in the Veda, injunctives (which are used in both
positive and negative commands) are mostly forms of the strong
aorist, and being thus perfective forms border on the future, which
again borders on the imperative.

^ Orundr. ii. § 605 and § 958 n. fer on this theory is the
regular phonetic representative of original ^hher-s through the
stage /i;rs by assimilation, while lakt.fers (2nd sing, pres.) is a new
formation on the analogy of other 2nd persons ending in -s, Cp.
however Solmsen, Studien z. lot. Sprachgeschichte, pp. 5, 185.

— § 622 LATER FORMS OF THE IMPERATIVE 467

be explained as ordinary imperatives with final -t
dropped, like hie for *hi-€e, sic, etc

Corresponding middle forms are used regularly
in both languages for the imperative: thus ^€o
{hrov), Lat. sequere = ^seqj^e-so,

521. (v.) Having thus obtained a complete
series of forms for the 2nd person, we ^^^^ Later
can see how it was possible for the im- developments,
perative to develop corresponding forms for the 3rd
person. The form with -tdd, <f>€pe'Ta) fer-to, engrafts
itself permanently as the form for the 3rd person,
and through its influence the dual of the injunctive
is modified in Greek from (pepi-Tijv to (pepi-rtov (a
very rare type). In the 3rd plural, ^epovrmv — the
only good Attic form till Aristotle's time — ^seems to
arise from an injunctive *<f)€pov, followed by the
-TO) suffix and with the ending of the 3rd plural
added on again, thus making, as it were, a plural to
the form ^e/^e-ro). The JjSLtin fer-unto represents a
corresponding form without final -n, to which a
parallel, though independently developed, is seen in
the Doric <f>€p6vTo>. The 2nd plurals affi-td'te, etc.,
in Latin show how the -tdd saffix had become fixed
in the paradigm. The later Attic type ^eperto-aav is
a pluralising of the singular ^eperto by the suflSx -aav,
which at this time began to encroach also on other
areas, as in the Hellenistic ikd/Soaav for eka^ov.

522. The middle forms of Greek are somewhat
more difficult, (hepkadto seems to arise

from the analogy of act. (pepere and foima of the im-

^kpeaOe, producing a new form by the

side of <l>€p€Ta>. ^epeadtov, ^epiaOoyaav are made

468 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION % 622 —

from the singular in the same way as <f>€p6vT<ov, The
Greek forms for the 2nd person singular of the -»-
aorist, both active and middle (Sctf oj/, Se?fat), are
not yet explained. Both seem noun forms (infini-
tives).

523. The Latin forms of the 3rd person in the
Latin puBive passive seem to be merely the active
impeiKUvea. f^^^ ^^.j^ ^j^^ passive sigu appended:

ferto-r, affito-r ; ferimto-r, agunto-r. The 2nd plural
legimini, eta, is now generally explained as being an
infinitive used in an imperative sense, as so often
in Greek ; if so, legimini is identical with Homeric
infinitives in -fievai, Xeyi-fievai, and is not the
same as the 2nd plural of the present, which is a
participle = Xerfofievoi,, The singular form in -mivJ^
{prae-famirw, etc.), found in old Latin, seems an
analogical formation founded on this.

XXX. Verbal Nouns

524. Although the formation of the verbal nouns
— the infinitives and participles — has already been
discussed in its proper place] under the stem forma-
tion of the noun, it will be «MXiording to custom,
and at the same time convenient, to enumerate here
briefly the forms which are found in the classical
languages.

The Infinitive.

525. The infinitive is merely a crystallised noun
form which, ceasing to be connected with the

— § 526 HISTORY OF THE INFINITIVE 469

other noun forms of the type to which it belongs,
is gradually extended to other uses than iniinitivMaw
those which originally belonged to it as a **** '°"°^
noun form. In the various Indo-Germanic languages
practically any case, including the nominative, can
be used as an infinitive. The classical languages,
however, restrict themselves to a few cases. Greek
affects the dative and locative ; Latin the accusative,
dative, and locative. In Latin the accusative forms
are called supines, but they differ from other infini-
tives only in the limitation of their use to accom-
pany verbs of motion (cp. § 333, (1) d). The
infinitive, by its origin, can have nothing to do with
the distinction between active, middle, and passive ;
and the specialisation of particular forms to particular
voices must be therefore comparatively late.

526. The Greek dative forms are all infinitives
which end in -at : (i.) from non-thematic Greek dative
stems like lard-vat, ^d-vat, Sovvav ( = So- i»fl^»^^«»-
Fevai), from the last of which (a -j^w-stem) and
its like the type seems to have arisen when the F
had disappeared, and to have been carried on to
other forms,^ including the perfects yeyov-ivai,
ireiravK-kvai, etc. ; (ii.) forms from -/tci'-stems as
in the Homeric infinitives in -fievai, Sofievat, etc. ;
(iii.) &om -5-stems, as in the first aorist Bei^at, etc.
The middle and passive forms belong either to (L) if
passive aorists: <f>avr}vcu, \€c<l>0tjvat, or have a
separate form (iv.) ending in ^0ai or a-Oai : iora'a-
Oat, Xeiirea-Oatt BeUvv-a-'Oai ; \v<ra-<T-0ai, Xu<re-<r-

* G. Meyer, Or, Or.^ § 597. In SoFhfot, Cypr. dvFayot the F
may, as Hofimann thinks, belong to the root

470 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 626

Qat\ 7r€<f>dv'0at, T€Tpd<l>-0av, etxx The simplest
explanation of the forms in -a-Oai is Bartholomae's/
that forms like Xeyea-dat are really compounds,
Xeye^' being the locative without suffix and -dcu a
dative from a root noun identical with the root of

527. (v.) In Homer, forms of the type ho-fiev are
Greek locative locativcs without suffix ; 80 too are the

inflnitivee. j^^^^ infinitivcs in 'I17IV and ^i;: hofi/qv,
rpd^ev. (vi.) The ordinary infinitive in -eti/ is
difficult. It is apparently a contraction of the
thematic vowel -«- with the -«-vowel of a suffix,
but whether this suffix was -j^n or -sen is not clear.
The latter is, however, more probable, for the
suffix could then be identified with the Skt.
infinitive suffix -^an-i, and there is less difficulty in
the early contraction of the vowels.

528. (i.) The Latin present infinitive active

utfn inflnitivee ®^^8 ^^ "^^> ^'^'^ ^^ ^h® original locativc
*c^^«' of an -s-stem, regere in the verb
being exactly parallel to geTiere {=^*genes4) in
the substantive. (ii.) The history of the per-
fect infinitive is not clear. Old forms such as
dixe ^ may possibly represent the same type as the
Greek SeJfat, but the histoiy of such forms as
legisse, rexisse, vidisse, amasse and amavisse, audi-
visse, etc., is as obscure as that of the corresponding
forms of the pluperfect subjunctive, (iii.) With

^ Rheiniaches MuseuiUf zlv. pp. 151 ff. Bragmann explains
these forms somewhat differently, supposing that the type begins
with the stem eldes- in etScff-Otu, and is then extended to other
forms as -aScu {Ghrundr, ii. § 1093, 8).

* ¥oT-i (instead of -i) ep. Solmsen, I,R iv. pp. 240 ff.

— § 629 THE LATIN INFINITIVES 471

regard to the forms of the future infinitive active
there has been much dispute. Till recently the
received explanation was that -the so-called future
participle was a derivative from the -tor stems
found in the noun, that e.g. rectnrm was a deriva-
tive from rector. It was however recognised that
the phonetic change of -or- into -ilr-was insufficiently
supported by the parallel between ^dip and fur,
and various other attempts at explanation were
made. Dr. Postgate^ points out that the infinitive
with the indeclinable form -turum is earlier than
that with the declinable participle, and argues that
such a form eLafacturum arises from a combination
of factu with an infinitive in -om from the sub-
stantive verb which, though no longer found in
Latin, is still found in Oscan and Umbrian. This
infinitive *eS'Om becomes according to the Latin
rhotacism *er-om, *er'Um, and contracts with the
preceding word (which ends in a vowel) [into one
word.

529. (iv.) To' this hypothetical Latin infinitive,
which would be the accusative of an
-o-stem, we have a living parallel in the
so-called supine, which is the accusative of a -tu-
stem, the locative case of which (v.) is used with
adjectives of certain classes, facile dictu literally
" easy in the telling," etc. As in the case of the
other infinitives, the supine in -urn has nothing
characteristic of the active voice, the supine in -u
nothing characteristic of the passive. Eo ambtda-

^ I.F, iv. p. 262, an elaboration of earlier papers in Clas8, Rev,
V. p. 301 and elsewhere.

472 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 629

turn is literally " I go walking," foMt dictu passes
without difficulty from "easy in the telling" to
" easy to tell " and " easy to be told."

530. (vi) The present infinitive of the passive
utin infinitives is an old dative case: ag%^*aS'H'

p»Miv6. rpjjg present infinitive in all conjuga-
tions has the same suffix, although in the derivative
verbs it seems, like the active suffix in -re, to be
added by analogy. The relation between this
infinitive and the passive infinitive in -ter, arnarier,
etc., is uncertain. The most plausible explanation
is that the infinitive in -ler is a mixture of the
infinitives in -I and in -ere, the latter being
curtailed to -«r. This, which is the view of Stolz,^
is however not generally accepted. The other
passive infinitives in Latin are periphrastic: esse
with the perfect participle passive, and for the
future the accusative supine with the. present
infinitive passive of eo, actum iri, etc. This form,
however, occurs but rarely.

(vii.) According to most recent authorities,
legimini the 2nd person plural of the imperative is
an infinitive (§ 523).

531. (viii.) Amongst the verbal nouns must

also be reckoned the gerund. Whether

this noun form was the original from

which the gerundive participle was developed,

agendum, for example, being changed into a^end-

^ Lot, OrJ% 117. Brugmann holds the somewhat improbable
theory that -er in such forms is the nnaocented preposition ar (in
ar-vorsum, ar-fuere^ ar-hiter) appended to the infinitive, just as in

-^Germanic languages to is set before it.

— § 534 HISTORY OF THE PARTICIPLE 473

UB, -a, 'Um^ or whether the gerund is but the
neuter of the participle crystallised into a sub-
stantive is still 51^6 jvdice. The existence of the
participle and not of the gerund in the Italic
dialects, though with our scanty material far from
conclusive proof, gives at least prima fade prob-
ability to the latter hypothesis. The difiBculties of
the formation have already been referred to (§ 194,
cp. § 538 n.).

Participles.

532. Participles in the various Indo-Germanic
languages are made from a considerable number of
diflTerent stems. In the formation of participles
Latin and Greek are more closely akin than usual.

533. (L) The most frequent suflBix for active
participles is -nt-. The stem had origin- participles
ally gradation, but in both languages ^"***"
this has almost disappeared (§ 363). The forma-
tion of the present participle in both the classical
languages is alike ; i^kpovra : ferentem = iroha :
pedem, Latin has of course no aorist and no
future participle of the types found in the Greek
\v<ra<; and Xvatov. The Greek passive participle
Xvdcl^;, etc., is a special Greek development formed
on the analogy of <f>avei% etc., the type of which is
the same as that of the Lat. manens and belongs
originally to the active voice (§ 500).

534. (ii.) The suffix of the perfect participle
active was originally in -^os- with grada- p^rfecb
tion (§ 353). This is still preserved in i«rticipieact.
Greek €tSa)9, eihvla, but confused with a -r-forma-

474 HISTORY OF VERB FORMATION § 534 — -

tion in the oblique cases of the masc. and neut.
etSora, 6tSoT09, etc. The perfect participle active
is entirely lost in Latin but preserved in Oscan
(§ 353) as an element in tense formation (§ 665,3).

535. (iii.) The suffix of all middle participles
partidpiMin ia Greek is -yu^vo- (§ 400). This suffix
^nc, inoTio.. Qj. j|.g byfoi^ ^monO' is found in the

form used for the 2nd person plural of the present
passive in Latin, on the analogy of which other
forms are made (§ 49).

536. (iv.) The forms in -^0-, which survive in
participiM In Latin as the regular perfect participle
■<o. and .««»<►. passive, havc originally nothing to do

with the perfect. Greek keeps many forms with
the same sense as the Latin gerundive, but in both
languages some old forms such as kKvto^, iriclitus,
and others are purely adjectival. Closely akin in
meaning to the -ro-form in Greek are the forms
in -T€f 0- (§ 403), with which again the isolated form
in Latin mortuus may be connected.

537- (v.) The forms for the future participle
Latin parucipte activc in Latin acturvs, etc., are probably

in -turns, devclopcd from the future infinitive.

538. (vi.) The gerundive participle in Latin

Latin mjrundiv6 ^ -ndo- has bccu already discussed

participle, (g j 94) j^g formation and history are

still wrapped in the greatest obscurity.^

^ An excellent oollection of material for the study of the histoiy
of gerund and gernndive will be found in the Introduction to vol.
ii. of Boby's Lalin Chrammar, The commentary, however, is in
some respects antiquated. L. Horton-Smith (A,J,P, xv. pp. 194 ff.,
cp. xviii. p. 449) and Lindsay (Latin Language, p. 544) consider
the first element an aocusatival infinitive followed by the suffix

— § 639 SYNTAX OF THE VERB 475

XXXI. Uses of the Verb forms

539. It has abeady been pointed out (§ 438)
that the fonns of the verb present more morpho-
logical diflBculties than those of the noun. They
also present more syntactical difficulties, partly
because the verb system of the different languages
has been so much recast that comparison is less easy,
partly because the sense of the verb forms is more
subtle than that of noun forms. From the nature
of the case, we cannot expect to find in the verb
the straightforward simplicity of the local cases of
the noun, but, as we shall see, the signification of
different tenses and moods overlaps in a manner
which makes it almost impossible to draw distin-
guishing lines be.tween them.

'do- of luci-dU'Sy etc. Brugmann's view (Onmdr. ii. pp. 1424 ff.)
is similar, only he explains the suffix -do- as arising from the post-
position ^dOf *de of en-do, dd-nec, ijfiiT€p6y-S€ which has become
declined just aaperfidtis arises from per fidem^ subiugus from sub
iugo. An exact parallel with a declined post-position is lacking.
Fay's view {A,J,P, xy. pp. 217 C and elsewhere) that the ending
of the form is of the same origin as -^at of the Greek inf. is con-
trary to the phonetic laws of the Italic dialects. Qreenough
{Harvard Studies, x. pp. 13 ff.) returns to an earlier type of ex-
planation, supposing e.g. that gerundus comes from the root
*ger- with a series of suffixes seen in [mori-'iger-u-s, ger-o (gen.
-onis) ; thus standing {or* ger -ho + on -{■ do-s. The gerundive is dis-
cussed by Lebreton {M^m. de la Soc de Ling. xi. pp. 145 ff.) and
the history and meaning of all the forms in a careful essay by
Persson {De origine ac vi primigenia Oerundii et Qerundivi LcUini,
Upsala, 1900), who coUects the forms in -lid-, -ndo- from other
languages and adopts Corssen's view that the suffix arises from
a combination of the suffixes -n- and -d-, -do-. Cp. also Thomas,
Trans. Comb. Phil. Soc. v. pt 2.

476 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 540

1. Uses of the Voices.

540. The passive (§ 448) has been developed
Diffenntmethods '^^ ^ach language separately and is
pLivItoiSdoS! therefore, strictly speaking, outside the
""^^^"^ limits of comparative syntax. In

Greek, as we have seen, it is developed out
of the middle with the addition of some new
forms containing the syllable -^17-, in Latin it is
developed from active or middle forms by means of
a suffix -r {-ur) added after the personal ending,
but apparently existing originally only in the 3rd
person singular (§ 449). In Sanskrit the passive
is a -jo-stem, distinguishable only from the ordinary
type by the fact that the -jo-suffix is always
accented. Some languages, as Lithuanian, avoid
passive constructions. In the rare instances where
such constructions occur, Lithuanian forms them
by means of the substantive verb and a participle
as in English.^ Lithuanian has also lost the original
middle and replaced it by reflexive forms con-
structed from the active with a reflexive pronoun
suffixed — a method of formation which the early
philologists assumed for the Latin passive.^

541. The distinction between the transitive and
intransitive meanings of the active voice depends
upon the nature of the root in each case.

542. .As regards the meaning of the middle

1 Eurachat, LU, Gram. § 1131.

^ This assumption fell to the ground when it was proved that
Keltic and Italic passive formations were identical, for in Keltic 9
does not pass into r.

— § 643 THE USES OF THE VOICES 477

voice there seems to be no better explanation
than that it has some sort of reflexive ^^^ ^^^^
sense, the action of the verb being ^^®*-
directed towards the agent, although the agent is
rarely the direct object.^ Thus \ovfiai, " I wash
myself " is really rather the exception than the
typical example. For the contrasted use of active
and middle cp. Eur. Androm. 740, yafi^poif^
BvSd^o) Kol Si^Bd^ofiai \iyov^ and the Swallow
Song, 17 f. (Athenaeus, 360 d), &v S^ ^6/3179
Tt, I fieya &; n if>€poio. By comparing such con-
structions as tA fikv aWa SiSdaKOvrat tov9 vUi^
(Plato, Protag. 325 b) where the meaning of the
middle is causal " get taught " with BiSd^o/uu above,
it is easy to see how the passive use develops,
SiBd^ofuu differing but little from such a genuine
passive use^ as that of BiZa^6fie<rOa in Soph.^71^. 726
(SiSa^opLeaOa Bif \ <f>pov€lv). From the reflexive
meaning it is in some cases easy to trace the
development of an intransitive sense; cp. iravto
"check," Travofuii "check myself, cease"; <f}aiva>
" show," <f}alvofiai " show myself, appear." It is
noticeable that in both Greek and Sanskrit, verbs
of thought and feeling are mostly in the middle
voice, as, from the definition, might be expected.

2. Verb-types.

543. It seems that in the original Indo-
Germanic language there were two types of verb

1 Monro, ff,G* § 8.

^ The fut. pa88. form diSaxO^ofuu seems not to be found earlier
than Dionysins of Halicamassus.

478 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 543

clearly distinguishable from the syntactical point of
Durativeand vicw. In the onc serics, the idea ex-
perfective verbs, pressed by the root implied duration over
a perceptible period of time, in the other the idea
was that of something occurring, the whole action
being, as it were, within the view of the observer,
and the fact of completed occurrence alone being
indicated without reference to duration.^ We
might distinguish the two types of action graphi-
cally by representing durative action as a line of
indefinite length, and the other type by a particular
section of this line. When the action expressed
was completed at once, the section would be reduced
to a point.

Naturally a verb which expresses continuity of
action cannot be made in the present from a root
which expresses instantaneous action, unless the
root meaning is modified by a stem suffix (§ 547).
On the other hand, no root expressing continuous
action can occur in the strong (second) aorist.
Hence arise (1) the series of defective verbs which
have presents but no aorists, or aorists but no
presents^; (2) the series of compounds with pre-
positions which have the meaning of a simple verb
in a somewhat different signification from the un-
compounded form. This series is developed separ-
ately by the different languages, the prepositional

^ From this meaning arises the "constative " use of the Greek
aorist, which refers to past actions simply as having occurred
(§548, ii. n.).

' In Latin, as perfect and aorist are confused, we must substi-
tute perfect for aorist Some verbs, no doubt, are defective for
other reasons.

§ 643 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 479

meaning being still undeveloped at the time when
the primitive community broke up (cp. § 340).
Thus of the first series we find in both Greek and
Latin that ^ €/}(», fero begins and ends with the
present formation, the aorist (in Latin the perfect)
being formed from a different verb fjv^rfKa, tvli.
In Greek 6pd<o is limited to the present ; elhov to
the aorist {olha has a different meaning), and many
other instances might be quoted. It is for the
same reason that when the present of the verb
expresses a durative meaning the aorist is made
from a different form of stem.^ Thus SiSovai " to
be giving," i,e. (as usually in Attic Greek) " to offer,"
Sovvac " to give " ; rokfiav " to be courageous " (a
state), rXrjvai "to dare, endure" (on a particular
occasion). Compare also iytyvofirjv " I was becom-
ing " with iyevofirjv " I became " (was).

^ This difference between pres. and aor. furnishes the ezphina-
tion of fieWu with aorist infinitive, a construction against which
most editors wage such relentless warfare that it has almost dis-
appeared from prose authors, although its existence is guaranteed
by passages like JSschylus, P. V, 628 (iro^ctv), Euripides, Ion, 760
and El, 17 {eav€i»\ Phoen. 300 {OiytXv\ and i(W, 80 (ri/x^Oi in all
of which emendation is impracticable. In other passages, as Soph.
O.T. 967, Eur. Androm, 407, the- aor. has been unnecessarily
emended to the future {jKrw^w to KrwCai), As most verbs have
only one future form for both types of action (§ 546 n.), the fat can
be used in this construction in place of the aorist Yet some authors
(e.^. Pindar) carefully eschew the fut construction (in 01, viii. 82
some editors read reiJ^eti' where the MSS. have reD|at). So also in
Herondas, <l>ofnjaai, iii. 78, iMayvCivcUf ib. 92. The same explana-
tion applies to iXrLt i(m, iXrl^ta, irpoffSoKQ, etc., with aor. infin.
As the fut. was a correct alternative for either pres. or aor., it might
have been expected to encroach on the other constructions even
more than it does.

480 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 544 —

544. The second series seems less widely
developed in Greek, though in Attic prose, while
we have rkOvrjKa never *airoT€0VffKa, we must
always, on the other hand, have airodvTJaKm not
Ov^aKto. The reason for the use of the compound
in this particular case seems to be to counteract the
inceptive force of the sufiBx. Conversely in Latin
the present in -no- which belongs to tvli attaches
itself to the compound, so that tollo, sus-tvli become
parts of one paradigm, fero and tvli of another.
Here also the cause is the meaning of the -7U)-suffix
(§ 547). For the difference between the simple
and the compound verb cp. also <f>€vy€iv " flee," and
Kara^evyeiv "escape," Latin sequi and cansequi}
These double types are best preserved in the
Slavonic languages, where they are kept apart in
two separate and complete verb formations. In
these languages, when the verb -idea is not accom-
panied by the subsidiary notion of completion, the
verbs are called " Imperfective," and may be of two
kinds : (a) simply durative. Old Bulgarian biti " to
strike " ; (6) iterative, HvcUi '* to strike repeatedly."

^ Mutzbauer, starting from Curtius' comparison of the present
to a line, of the aorist to a point, has partially worked out this
subject for Homeric Greek in his Grundlfigen der grUehischen
Tempualehre (Strassburg, 1893). Further contributions have been
made by Herbig, I.F. vi. pp. 157 ff., and by Miss Purdie, TKe per-
feetwe ' ^Aktumsart" in Polybius (/. F. iz. pp. 63 ff. ). Most important
of aU is the investigation by Delbriick in his Syntax, ii. pp. 13 ff.,
where he has coUected the material from Vedic Sanskrit, and
elaborately classified and subdivided the different types of action.
This classification is followed by Brugmann, Gr, Oram.^ pp. 471 ff.
For the Latin representation of the aoiist cp. MeiUet, Bevue de
PhUohgU, 21 (1897), pp. 81 ff.

— §545 DURATIVE AND PERFECTIVE ACTION 481

If, on the other hand, the verb-idea is accompanied
by the subsidiary notion of completion, the verbs
are called " Perfective," and may be of two kinds :
(a) simply perfective u-hiti " to strike dead " ; (6)
iterative perfective u-bivati " to strike dead repeat-
edly " (used of several objects or subjects ^). In the
early history of the Germanic languages the same
phenomenon is obvious,^ and we still preserve it
to some extent in modern English by making a
durative present by means of a periphrasis : " I am
writing," etc., while we keep a perfective sense in
the ordinary present. In the Slavonic languages
this perfective form expressing momentary action is
often used for a future ; with which we may com-
pare the English " He said, / go, but went not,"
where I go ib equivalent to a future, and exactly
parallel to the ordinary Greek use of eifu as a
future.

3. Uses of the Tenses.

545. The above discussion has thrown some
light upon the relation between present

, . ^ . , ,, Durativeandmo-

and aorist. It is now clear that when mentary forms

.in Greek.

present and aorist are lound m the

same verb, the former is the* durative, the latter

the perfective or momentary form. The relation

between aorist and future is also clear. While

itr-Oio} and irl-va) are durative forms, IS-o-fiat an. 3,

Tri'D'oat are perfective or aorist forms whicN»^°^^
^ ^ ith parti-

1 Leskien, Handbuch der aUbulgarischm SpraM^, § 1^* ^^i^h is

a Cp. Streitberg, Perfective u, imperfeaive Adwnsc^^ ^^^^ *^«

manischen (reprint from Paul u. Braiine's Beilrage, x^*'^*"'^*

2 I

482 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 645 —

utilised for the future. In Greek, unlike Slavonic,
we hardly find durative and perfective presents
from the same verb side by side, though ypcufxo and
the byform rpdirco for the present are examples of the
corresponding aorist forms transferred to the present,
and the second aorists are augmented forms of a per-
fective type whose present is generally not found.
A possible example of durative and perfective forms
making separate verbs is to be seen in epx'O-fuu
and apX'O-fiat, the meanings of which are related
precisely as those of fiaivm and e/Srjv in the Homeric
firj S' Ihai " he started to go." ^

546. In the examination of tense usages, we
must be careful to observe that tenses,
later develop- in the scusc in which the word is now
used, are of comparatively late develop-
ment, and that e,g, the pluperfect in Greek does not
in the Homeric period express relative time as the
Latin pluperfect does. The pluperfect sense when
w'anted is generally expressed by an aorist form :
'Apvato^ S' Svofi €<TK€' TO jhp dkro troTvia fiiinjp
{Od, xviii. 5) " Amaeus was his name, for that name
Jiod his lady mother given him " ; 17 (Hiyi/eXoTreta)
S' ovT aOprjirai Bvvar avriq ovt€ vorjacu \ r^ yap
^AOrfvaif) voov erpairev (Od. xix. 478-9) " she was
not able ... for Athene had turned . . ." The
imperfect of a compound with perfective mean-
^^*-<r may be used in the same way: Kai 01 Iwv iv
elaborat^ €7r6T/)67r€i/ oIkov arravra (jOd, ii. 226) "And
This claasi.put all his house in his charga" The Greek

For the Lai

PhilaloQie 2^^^^^ ^^™^ ^ ^fiXOf^ and Apx"^ is found in dpxufut
' leader."

— § 547 DEVELOPMENT OF TENSE MEANING 483

pluperfect is simply an aoristic form developed from
the perfect stem. The so-called future perfect in
Greek has only the meaning of an ordinary future/
though it is possible with the help of the context
to translate it occasionally like the Latin future
perfect. The idea of relative time, the idea that the
time of an action is to depend on the time of some
other action whether in the past or in the future is
entirely foreign to the early history of the Indo-
Grermanic languages. Nor can we assert of any
forms, whether presential or preterite, that they
had originally a distinct reference to time. The
perfect is at first a special type of present (§ 549) ;
the forms in -sjo- for the future did not originally
indicate futurity. In Greek and Latin the forms
which are used for the future are often voluntative
or potential in meaning.

547. The present in Greek may be either per-
fective or durative, as we have already seen. But
the present (^ 479 ff.) is formed in a great variety
of ways. In the different types of present can be

^ Such forms of course take the same shade of meaning as the
stem from which they come; ii€fiHiaofuu ''I shaU remember,"
dtarcToXe/tVerat " the war will be over," etc., with the idea of the
state contained in the perfect (§ 549). The future passive is
developed after Homer as a parallel to the passive aorist ; i-rifii/idri-Vf
Ttfi7fdi/l-aofiaif etc. There is hardly a trace of a similar difference
in the active ; t^<a is the presential future to ix^t <rxh^^ the aorist
future to (-(rxov. Cp. Kiihner-Blass, OrUch. Gram, ii. § 229, 2, n. 3,
and Blass in an article {Kkein. Mus. 47, pp. 285 if.) where he shows
that all verbs which have an intransitive aorist in -17V (with parti-
ciple in -eif) or -Brfv may form from this stem a future, which is
used exclusively in an aoristic value, if a future formed from the
present stem exists and can be used as the durative future.

484 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 647

traced to some extent an attempt to indicate diflFerent
types of action. Thus the reduplicated verbs were
originally iterative, the verbs in -lo- were cursive,
expressing continuous action and being often in-
transitive, the verbs with sufl&xes in -sfo)- and -n-
were terminative} indicating the beginning or the
end of the action, like the English start, fetch.
Thus from the root of e-firj-v, which expresses the
momentary action of moving the foot, we have an
iterative present fil-firj-fu (/St-^a-w) " step," " walk."
The iterative often passes into the intensive mean-
ing, and in all languages the desire for emphasis in
time reduces the intensive to the value of the simple
verb (cp. fUfivoD with fiiveo, 1<tj((o with ?x®). The
meaning of the -jo-stems may be seen in )(aip^
" rejoice," (f>pd^ofiaL " consider," T^vaato " behold,"
all of which are durative, while others like ayelpo)
" assemble " border on the terminative type, which
is exemplified in d>lrfpWTo irvXai " the gates were
being opened," irv/cva Kaptfara Bdfivaro \a&v " were
being laid low," /ad-aKc " Off! " But in Greek the
distinction between the present types is less clear
than it is in the Aryan languages and in many
verbs can no longer be observed.

The perfective or momentary value, which is

properly expressed by the Greek aorist,
express (i.) an must uot bc coufuscd With another value
procei, (ii'i.) a that somc prcscuts havc which express

a state rather than a process or action.
These presents have the same value as many

^ These terms are borrowed from Delbriick's classification (iSVnto«,
ii. pp. 14 ff.).

§ 647 THE PRESENT INDICATIVE 485

perfects. ^^a> and oX'xpfiaL exemplify well this
perfect meaning in Greek. Apart from verbs like
sum it is hard to find simple perfect presents in
Latin, though compounds, as advenio, in a perfect
sense are common. In Greek there are some other
verbs which express a state, whose meaning is that
of a perfect : vtK&, KparSt, fjTT&^uiL.

The original present seems to have had three
values,* being used (i.) of that which was
true at all times, (u.) as a future, (ui.) values of the
instead of anhistorical tense (the historic
present).

(i.) ovK ap€Ta KaKct epya. Od. viii. 329. Ill

deeds ne'er prosper.

qiiod sihi volunt, dum id impetrant, boni

sunt. Plant. CapL 234. As long as

they get what they want, they are good.

(ii.) In Homer the future use of the present is

found with elfii, viofuti, and one or two other verbs,

but is much rarer than in Attic. This present is

really of two kinds : (a) momentary presents which

are regularly used as futures (§ 544) ; (b) dramatic

presents which stand in the same relation to the

future as the historic present does to the past.^

In Latin the first series is comparatively rare in the

^ Brugmann, BerichU der kdnigl, sacha. Otsellschaft der Wissen-
scJiaften^ 1883, pp. 169 ff., an article from which several of the
following Greek examples are taken.

^ A subdivision of this present is the use in oracles or prophecies,
as in Herodotus, vii. 140, oiJrc n — Xe/Terat, aW dlBrika tA« • icord
ydp HIV ipdiFtL irvp re Kal 6^ds "kfrtfi. Compare Campbell's LochuVs
Wamimg^ ''And the clans of Culloden are ^scattered in fight," etc.,
the seer beholding the events of the future passing before him.

486 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 547

simple sentence, though it seems to be more common
in subordinate time clauses and in infinitives in
oratio obliqiia. Presents of the second series are
often accompanied by an adverb of time, as in the
examples below.

a, ov yhp Brjv fivrjo'Tfjpe^ airiaaovrai fieyd-

poLo, I dXX^ /iaV fjpt viovrai, Od,
XX. 155. Not for long will the suitors
be absent from the hall, but they will
certainly come in the morning.
Compressan palma an porrecta ferio^f
Plaut. Cos, 405. Shall I strike him with
my clenched fist or with the open hand ?

b. el avTf) f) 7roXt9 \rj<f>0ii<r€Tat, €)(^€Tai fi

iraaa Xt/ceXia, Thuc. vi. 91. If this

city shfdl be taken, the whole of Sicily

is in their possession.
Qiiam mox navigo in Ephesum? Plaut.

Bacch. 775. How soon do I sail to

Ephesus ?
Qttae volo simul imperaho : poste continuo

exeo, Ter. Sun, 493. At the same

time I'll demand what I want; after

that I'm off at once,
(iii.) The historic present is not found in Homer,
though frequent later in both prose and verse.
Why Homer does not use it is hard to discover, for
the construction is widely developed elsewhere and
is almost certainly Indo-Germanic.^

* For the aorifltic value of /mo cp. Plutarch, Romulus, 16, rh yiip
TX^^at <p€pipe {ferire) 'Pw/xaioc Ka\ov<n¥,
2 Brugm. Or, Or.^ 8 648.

§ 647 THE PRESENT INDICATIVE 487

k€Kj^v^i irifi'y^ai avipa^ k.tX, Thuc. i. 91.

He bids them send men.
Acefcj/i; /Lt€i/ AXetriv vtv €9 Tpoiav r ayei,
Eur. Hecuba, 266. She ruined him and
took (lit. takes) him to Troy (varepov
irporepov).
The example from Euripides shows that the
historical present and a genuine past tense can be
used in the same construction. Compare with this
the inscription on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius
Scipio Barbatus, consul B.c. 298, Taurasiaim)
Ci8auna(m) Samnio cejnt suhigit om7ie{m) Lou-
canam opsidesque abdoucit,

Accedo ad pediseqtuis. qtuie sit rogo, |

sororem esse aiunt Chrysidis, Ter. Andr.

123. I go up to the attendants. I ask

who she is. They say she is Chrysis'

sister.

(iv.) Homer and later Greek writers often use

the present with an adverb of time instead of a past

tense, a construction which has an exact parallel

in Sanskrit and which is therefore supposed to be

Indo-Germanic.

TtTTTC 0€T4 ravwreTrXe iKavei^ '^fjbirepov 8& |
alSoirj T€ <f>tk7j T€; irdpo^ ye fikv ov ri
0afjLi^€i^, n. xviii. 386. Why Thetis
with trailing robe comest thou to our
house, revered and beloved; in former
days thou wert no frequent guest ?
v^p. Kpte Triirov, ri fioi &B€ Bih aireo^ eaavo
firjktov I v<rTaTO<i\ ov ti irdpo^ ye
\e\eififi€vo^ ep^eaL ol&v, Od, ix. 448.

488 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 647 —

The only difference between present and im-
perfect in this construction is that the latter
expressly "brings the time of the action into
connexion with the speaker."^ The two are used
in conjunction in Iliads xiiL 228 f.

aXKii Soav, Kal yctp to irapo^ iieveirfio^

fja-da, I 6Tpvp€i<s Se kol oKXov, 60i

fi€0t€PTa ISrjai.

548. The imperfect was originally the tense of

Thoimperfectthe narration. Except in the vowel grade

nrrative tense, ^f ^.j^^ ^^^^ ^ ^ ^^^^^ j^ CaUUOt be

distinguished from the strong aorist, and in
meaning also aorist and imperfect overlap to
some extent. In Greek, aorist and imperfect from
the same verb are often found in precisely the
same relation in the same passage, so that it is
Its relation to futUe to draw any distinction between
the aortet. thcm.^ The imperfect of verbs of saying

^ Brugmann in the article cited above.

^ For example in Iliad vii. 303 Hector d(aK€ ^l^s dpyvpfnikw,
while in 305 Ajax ^bwr^pa tihov, Monro, in his edition, explains
Zl9ovBA ''gave at the same time/' "gave in return." Goodwin's
remark {Moods and Tenses, 1889, § 57) is worth quoting. "The
fundamental distinction of the tenses, which was inherent in the
form, remained ; only it happened that either of the two distinct
forms expressed the meaning which was here needed equally well. . . .
The Greeks, like other workmen, did not care to use their finest
tools on every occasion." The truth of this is well illustrated by
Iliad, ii. 42-46, where it is said that Agamemnon Mwe x<^*'a,
and pdWero 0apos, but iBiffffaro icaXd HdiXa, which was presumably
a more tedious operation than those given in the imperfect.
Metrical convenience may have decided the usages here, but it is
noteworthy that imperfects of -n- verbs in Homer are not un-
frequently accompanied by aorists of other types, a fact which
seems most easily explained from the original meaning of the -n-

— § 548 THE IMPERFECT TENSE 489

and commanding is frequently used as an aorist.
iicKvov (an aorist in formation) is regularly so
used in Homer,^ as is shown (1) by its gnomic use
in 09 ^6 ^€049 iTrcTreidriTai, fidXa r exXvov avrov,
B. i. 218, "whoso obeys the gods, to him they
attentively give ear " ; and (2) by its combination
with the aorist rov y^aXa fiep kKvov fihk iriOovro, II,
xiv. 133, "him they heard and obeyed." The
Latin imperfect in the main is like the Greek.

(i.) The imperfect as an historical tense of con-
tinous action.

€v0a ik 'irolOJov fjiiv fiAOv irivero, ttoWcL Be

firjka I €a'(f>a^ov7rapadivaK,T.\. Od. ix.

45. There was much wine drunk, and

many sheep they slaughtered by the

shore.
In tonstrina ut sedeham^ me infit percon-

tarier, Plaut. Asin. 343. As I was

sitting in the barber's shop, he begins to

inquire of me.
It is noteworthy that in narration Plautus
promptly changes, as here {infit), to the historical
present. For long narratives in the historical
present see Amphitruo, 205 ff., Curcvlio, 329 ff.
With these it is worth while to contrast the manage-
ment of a long narrative in Homer, as in Od, ix.

suffixes (§ 547), and which favours the explanation of /SdXXw as
*9i^/7td not ^/}d (§ 207), though there are phonetic difficulties.

^ Cp. Euripides' objection, in Aristophanes' Frogs, 1174, to the
beginning of the Choephori : icXueti', dx-oOo-at, Tdvrbp 6v ffa^arara,
Aeschylus makes no reply to the objection. Yet Euripides himself
is equally guilty : ojJic (kXvop, cOk IfKovaa • x<^^P^<^ ir6Xty {Phoen,
919).

490 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 648 —

(ii) When the present of a verb is the equivalent
of a perfect, as a/>;^a>, vik&^ Lat. rtgno^ etc., the
imperfect has a corresponding meaning : ^p-^ft " was
archon," hiKa "had conquered," rtgnahat "was king."
So fiK^ " had come," ^x^'^^ " ^^^ gone." Contrast
the aorists ^/E7{a, etc., which are often inceptive
(§ 522, ii.V

(iii.) The imperfect frequently expresses the
attempt to do something, a notion which arises out
of the general progressive meaning of the tense. In
Greek this sense is specially common in iSlSovp " I
offered, tried to give," and hreiOov " tried to per-
suade " (with a negative, " failed to persuade ").

i^ifiaWe KXeitrdevia. Herod, v. 70.

Cleomenes, sending a herald to Athens,

tried to expel Cleisthenes.
In exilium quom iret reduxi domum; |

nam ihat exvlatum. Plant. Merc, 980.

When he was going into exile, I brought

him home again ; for he was trying to go.
A special form of this usage is the frequentative
meaning of the imperfect.

ravrriv • • • | fMVTjorrjpe^ fjTOVV 'E\XaSo9

irp&roi p^doj^o?. Eur. EL 21. For her

suitors came wooing, the foremost men

of Greece.

> In the Attic inscriptions a date is given by the imperfect :
HtUfiiwit iirptrrdoftvef *Ay6(>pio5 KoWvredt iypafifAdT€V€, EvKXeidift
IfpXtt KaW^at "QaOep ixeffrdrei, but a reference to such matters as
past events is in the aorist : xp^^r, 6ffw iKurros l^p^ (377 B.C.),
61 povXevTot xaXidt xeU diKolm ipoiSKevaaif koI iTpvrdi^evaw (287 B.C.).
Meisterhans, Oram, d, aU, Insehr,^ § 86, 2.

§649 THE PERFECT INDICATIVE 491

Nociu ambulabat in publico Themistocles,
cum somnum capere non posset. Cic.
T.R iv. 44. T. used to walk about the
streets at night, whenever he could not
sleep.
549. The perfect was originally, as far as syntax
is concerned, merely a special kind of The perfect an
present. It was an intensive form, and int«n«ve present,
had nothing to do with time.

(l) The perfect is distinguished from the presents
of continuous action by expressing a The perfect
state, an idea from which the notion of •'^P^'^^es » eute.
the perfect as the tense of completed action easily
developa^ olSa " I know " (cp. Lat. novi), used only
of the state of knowing, is thus distinguished from
yiyv(oaK(o, which indicates the process of coming to
know. In the same way dvya-Kci " he is dying" is
distinguished from ridvriKe " he is dead " (hence
redvair)^ in Homer " may'st thou lie dead ") ; com-
pare fjUtfj^vyaKco " I remind," fi€fiv7)fiai " I have re-
minded myself, remember " (Lat. memini), /crdofiai
" I acquire," /ce/crrffuii " I possess," etc. SktoXa, Lat.
peril, actum est, express the completed action which
in English is expressed by a present, " I am lost,"
" it is all over," and the like.

' The English perfect in have originaUy expressed the present
result of a past action : ''I have bought a book" = I bought a
book and I have it The connexion of the two ideas in one
predicate gives by implication the notion of the immediate past, a
notion which seems the earliest meaning of the aorist (§ 552, iv. ).
The old English perfects aang, rang, etc., have passed into an
aoristic meaning, which they share with the later past formation
in -ed : loved, etc. ; while the continuous imperfect is now expressed
by loas and a present {larticiple : "he was singing," etc.

492 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 549

SXhjCL wape^ fJL€fivd)fieda, fiffSi fie rovrmv |

fiLfivr)(T/c' ij yetp 0vfJL6<; ivl OTqOeaa'tv

iftoltriv I a)(^i/vTai, omrore tl^ fivriari

KcBpoto apaKTo^, Od, xiv. 168. Let us

bethink ourselves of other things and do

not keep reminding me of these, for I am

grieved whenever any man.^t^^s me in

mindy etc.

That the difference between perfect and present

is originally one rather of root-meaning than of

tense is shown by such passages as —

iXBelv €9 Mei/eXaoi/ eyo) KiXofiai xal
apcoya, Od. iii. 317, 1 call and command
thee to come to Menelaus,
where the two are combined with a scarcely per-
ceptible difference of signification. Other examples
which illustrate the parallel between present and
perfect are —

rpdiret^au alrov teal Kpei&v koX olvov /Sefipl-
6 a a IV. Od. XV. 333. The tables are
laden with bread and flesh and wine.
ov Toi, iyoDV eppiya fid-^iiv ovSe /ctvttov
Xirirtov, 11. xvii. 175. In no wise do
I dread the fight or the thunder of
horses.
The same meaning is found with the perfect
middle, but more rarely.

olZa w fwt oSdSvarai k\vto<s ivvoair/aio^.

Od. XV. 423. I know how the famed

earthshaker hates me (cp. Lat. odi).

In very few cases can the Homeric perfect be

translated by the English perfect, and in such cases

— § 660 MEANING OF THE PERFECT 493

there is always some continuing result implied.^
Many such verbs, e.g, ^e^pLOaatv and eppiya
above, have no present forms in Homer.

The state expressed by the perfect is very often
contrasted in the Attic prose writers with the pro-
cess expressed by the present.

ov fiov\€V€a'dac &pa, dXXA ^e^ovXeva-
0 a I. Plato, Crito, 46 a. It is no time
for deliberation, but for decision.
ouTOt,'iJv S' iyd), ri fiovXeveaOop Troielv,
ovheVy Iffyq 6 XapfiiBr)^, dXXa fiefiovXev-
/jL€0a. Plato, CharmideSy 176c. " What
are you planning to do ? " " Nothing.
The planning is over."
Nunc Ulud esty quom me fuisse quam esse
nimio mavelim. Plant. Capt 516. This
is a moment when I'd rather have been
(i.e. be now dead) than be.
Cp. Vixisse nimio satiust iam qtuim vivere.

Plaut. Bacch. 151.
(iL) It is noticeable that in Homer the perfect
is frequently intransitive, corresponding in meaning
to the present middle, while the present active forms
some sort of causative verb ; cp. Lorafiac, larriKa " I
stand," La-Tfffic "I set, cause to stand " ; apapiaKto "I
fit," apr)p€ " is fixed "; 8pvvfit " I raise, cause to rise,"
opcope " it arises."

^AXe^dvSpoio etvcKa vcIko^ optapev, H, iii.
87. For Alexander's sake the strife is
stirred.
SSO. The Greek pluperfect is simply the aug-
1 Monro, ^.Gf.Ǥ 28.

494 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 660 —

mented past to presents of the perfect type. In
The pluperfect Homer it 18 used like the imperfect as
aoriatlc in Greek. ^ narrative tense. At all times this is
the value of the augmented tenses of present-
perfects : oZSa, ?wwi, " I know " ; 1787;, TMweram, " I
knew." As we have already seen (§ 506 f.), the
pluperfect forms are etymologically closely connected
with aorist forms. The Greek forms, occurring
only in the 3rd person, which are sometimes repre-
sented ^ as a link between the perfects itself and the
imperfect and aorist, can be otherwise explained.
They are 7^7ft)i/€, avijvoOe, and iwev^voOe. The last
two are identified by Curtius ^ with the reduplicated
type ifiififfKov, with which must also go e/eycoi^e
(iZ. xiv. 469) if genuine, ^^(ove is found four
times as a perfect in form, but always in the same
phrase oaaov re yeycovc fioijaa^. An aorist in the
same construction would be defensible, and no
passage renders it necessary to read e/cywi/et as a
pluperfect,^ while some passages seem to show that
yiyoDve and iyiycove are the same form, dififering
only by the presence or absence of the augment ;
cp. afiepSaXeov S' ifiorfaef yeyaovi re iraai OcotaL.
Od. viiL 305.

551. The Latin pluperfect is etymologically an
The pluperfect aorist form (§ 507), and some traces of

in Latin, j^g original value seem still to be found
in the interchange of perfect and pluperfect, the

1 Kb by Kiiiger (Dialekt. 53, 3, 4).
> In his Greek Verb (p. 429, English edition).
' Agar {Joumod of Philology ^ 26, p. 268) emenda where neoes-
Bary in order to make all the forms pluperfects.

— §562 PLUPERFECT AND AORIST >45

Latin perfect being in part also of aorist origin
(§ 497). The use of pluperfect for perfect forms
is, according to Draeger/ earlier than the converse,
being found in Plautus, while perfect for pluperfect
begins only in the classical period.^

Nempe obloqui me iusseras. Plant. Cure, 42.

Why sure you ordered me to interrupt.
Quosque fors ohtvlit ( = obttderat), irati in-
• terfecere. Livy, xxv. 29. 9. Those that
chance had thrown in their way, they
slew in their wrath.
Compare Propertius' non sum ego qui fueram
(i. 12. 11) with Horace's non sum qualis eram {Od.
iv. i. 3).

In the passage from Livy, the pluperfect mean-
ing arises from the context as in the Greek use of
the aorist as pluperfect (§ &46).

552. As we have already seen (§§ 500, 502),
there we two types of aorist. The forms ^he aoriBt hu
which end in the active of the Greek ^^^^yv^-
verb in -ov are, etymologically considered, only aug-
mented tenses of perfective presents. The forms
which contain a suffix in -5- are of different
origin, have a different inflexion, and might be
expected to show differences of meaning. Investiga-

' Eistorische Syntax, i." p. 258.

^ According to Blase {OesehickU des Plusqtiamperfekts im
LcUeinischen), whose views do not convince me, all such usages of
the plpf. as an absolute tense are late and begin with fueram,
which is by confusion so used, since in some instances fui and
eram are identical. This view seems tenable only if it could be
shown that the Latin plpf. is not a descendant from the original
language, but an invention within Latin itself to express relative
time.

496 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 552

tion, however, has not yet succeeded in discovering
any such difiference of signification between them
and the strong forms.

(L) The aorist meaning best recognised, because
most widely developed, is that of simple

Perfective aorist . , ^ , .

occurrence in the past. But the aorist,
except in the indicative, shows no past meaning
other than that which may be derived from the
context, and the injunctive forms of Greek (o-^^e?,
etc.) and Sanskrit show that the idea of past time
must be contained in the augment and not in the
verb-form proper. In Greek even the presence of
the augment is not able in all cases to attach a
past meaning to the verb, for the gnomic aorist
which expresses that which is true at all times is
generally found with an augment: pe^Oiv Se re
vrjirio^ i^^v(i)} A similar aorist is found in almost
all Homeric similes,'^ except when it is desired to
express duration.

(ii.) When the present of a verb expresses a

state, its aorist generally expresses the

Ingrai8ive aorist • x xu 4. 4. i. "

idea of entrance into that state. ap'Xfo
" I am archon," ^p^a " I became archon, came
into oflBce," ffa^iXevci "he is king," ifiaaiXevac
"he became king," dapaei "he is brave," iOdp-
arjae " he took courage."

Kal TOT6 S^ ddparjae Kal tfvSa pMim^
dfjLv/ujv. M, i. 92. Then at last the
blameless seer took courage and spake.
In the same way, when the perfect expresses a

1 See Piatt, Journal of Philology , xix. pp. 217 ff.
* For exceptions see Monro, If. Q^ § 78 (2).

§ 552 AORIST AND PERFECT 497

state, the aorist frequently is a perfect or pluperfect

in meaning.^ Thus from Kraoaah

the present of which is not found in

Homer, we have the perfect eKTrffiat or KexTrifiac

" I possess/' but iicTriadfjLTfv " I have acquired " or

" I had acquired " according to the context.

iiriaavro Ovfio^ arftivtop | • • •
KTTifiaaL repireadai, ret yipwp iKT'^aaro
Il7}\6v^' I ov yap ifiol yjrv^^ avrd^iov,
ovS' oca ^aalv | IXtov iKrrjaOai,
€vvat6/i€vov TTToXieOpov I TO irplv iir
elp'^vrj^ TTpXv iKdelv vta^ ^A'^ai&v. M.
ix. 398. My lordly heart was eager to
take its pleasure in the wealth which
Peleus has acquired; for not equal in
value to my life is all that Ilium once
possessed, etc. (to irplv ixTfjaOai, cp. irdpo^
ov Ti 0a/il^€i^, § 547, iv.).
Cp. airop Se a^iv eveifie MeaavXio^, ov pa
avfidnrf^ | avT09 KT'^aaro 0Z09 diroi-
'^ofiivoio avaxTOf;. Od. xiv. 449 f. And
among them Mesaulius distributed food,
whom the swineherd himself had gotten,
etc.
(iii.) The aorist is used not uncommonly of

^ The relationship between aor. and pft. is often very close in
other connexions, e,g, a qiiestion is asked by the aor. and answered
by the pft or vice versa; cp. Aristoph. Clovds^ 856 ff., Wasps,
274 ff., etc. Plutarch relates of Phocion (Timdeon, vi. 3) that he
said (tlvev) Cas i^cAXero h» ain^ radra fthf vpax^^vai, p€pov\eua0cu
d* iKeufCL, but elsewhere repeating the story {Apophthegm, 188 d),
ipunidtls, el raOra liBeXew odrot 'verpax^ai, ireirpax^ac ftiw cZp' (^
* raihu, pt^vXeOaOai d* iKwa. '

2 K

498 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 662 —

present time. According to Monro/ such aorists
" express a culminating point, reached
m the immediate past, or rather at
the moment of speaking." He cites amongst other
passages, iZ. iii 415 : tw? ik a airc'x^Bijpa) cb? vvv
€K7r(iy\' i(f>tK7faa, " and thus come to hate you as I
now (have come to) love you exceedingly."

In Attic poetry there is a considerable develop-
ment of this usage whereby aTriirrvaa, cTryveaa, and
the like are used as presents.

Aristoph. Pedce, 528. I scorn the hateful
fellow's hateful shield.
Although found in Aristophanes, the construc-
tion is absent from good prose.

In Latin such aorists as ruperunt in illius im-
mensae ruperunt horrea messes, Virg. Georg. i 49,
are not found in early Latin and are most probably
imitated from the Greek aonst.

(iv.) The idea of something beginning in the past
and culminating in the present brings us to what
Aorirtof is perhaps the most primitive use of
immediate paat. ^jjg aorist indicative, viz. to express
that which has just happened. This is the ordinary
value of the aorist in Sanskiit and is also found in
Slavonic. The English equivalent is the perfect
with have (§549 n.), and the Latin perfect meaning,
like the Sanskrit, may have developed directly
from this usage.

Z€U9 . . . S? irplv fiev fioi inriajfero koI
KaTevevaev (indefinite past) | • • • vw
1 H0^%7S,

— § 653 A OR 1ST IN FUTURE SENSE 499

hk KaKTjv awdrrjp fiovXeva-arOy Kai fie
KeKevei | hvaKkea "Afyyo^: UeaOai, II,
ii 111 ff. At this time he hath de-
vised, etc*
(v.) A development in the direction of future
time which Greek shares with Slavonic.

_- ,. 1 • 1 j^i Aoriat= future.

The ordmarj explanation that the
speaker puts himself at the future point of time
when the aorist is thus used, is hardly necessary,
for as we have already seen the perfective or aorist
presents of other languages are frequently used
instead of futures.

6t fiiv K av6i fievwv Tpcomv iroXtv afuf>i/id'
X'0>/JMi I a>X€TO fjL€v fjLOL vooTO^, dritp
kTUo^ a^OiTov earai, B. ix. 412. If
I remain . . . my chance of return is
gone (will be gone).
Qui si conservatus erit, vicimus, Cic.
Fam. xii. 6. If he shall be saved, we
(shall) have won.
553. The passive forms of the Latin perfect
and pluperfect with fui and fueram utinpaasive
instead of sum and eram, which are so *oriat.perfect.
frequent in Livy and later, are comparatively rare in
the early period. Only four examples are quoted
from Plautus,^ three of which are deponents and
one passive : mircctus, ohlitus, ojnncUu^, vectus all
with fui. The diflFerence may possibly depend to
some extent on local peculiarities in the language

1 Cp. Monro, n,G.^%1^.

2 Draeger, H.S.^ i. p. 276. The enumeration is certainly
incomplete.

500 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 653

of particular authors. No definite distinction in
meaning can be drawn between these and the
ordinary forms.

It is noteworthy that in Greek the aorist, in
Latin the aorist-perfect are used with words mean-
ing afte,T that, cTret, postquam, etc., in the sense of
the pluperfect.

NoTB.— The following passage from Iliad^ vi. 512-516, will help
to elucidate Homeric past tenses : —

'Cm lAht HpidfiMO HdpiS «rard HepydfMV &Kfnii
Tc^€ffi iraiupaLviaVf Cxrr iiXiKTUjp^ ^/9e/9^irec
Kayxo.\6<av. rax^es 8i T6det (p4pw aX^a 9* hreira
iSrropa 5tbi» irerfuv dS€\4>e6v, edr* &p* (fieWev

Here ipfP'/JKei is pluperfect in form, imperfect in meaning, and
parallel to ^pov the tense of durative action in past time ; (rerfiev
is the aorist expressing instantaneous occurrence, while dd/x^e is
an imperfect in form, a pluperfect in meaning, the action being
already past at the time expressed in the rest of the passage.

554. In neither Greek nor Latin can the forms
used for the future be certainly identi-

The ftiture. __ .,,, ••i-«-i^

fied With the original Indo-Germanic
future (§§ 491 ff.). The future forms of both
languages are for the most part subjimctives, and
the discussion of them falls therefore under that of
the moods. ^

^ The fut. indie, can be used in all three senses of the subj.
(§ 658). Thus in the sense of WiU {jussive) we find X^* efrt poiSXtv
X€ipl d* 0^ f aiJ^ecr irori, Eur. Med. 1320. '' Speak ... but touch
me with thy hand thou shalt not." For aU the persons singular,
in this sense, cp. Soph. Ant. 1656 ff. So in Latin, Si quid cteeiderU
navi, fades ut sciam, Cic. Fam, xiv. 8. " If anything new turns
up, you will let me know." In Greek, however, the negative with
the fut. is oO not fiilj, except in some examples from the fourth century
B.C. (Goodwin M,T. § 70). So in interrogative sentences : d>M pun

— § 555 FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT 601

555. "The future perfect is not a primitive
formation. In Homer always, and in The future
early Latin frequently, future perfect p«rf®ct.
forms are used like ordinary futures, the only
difference (if any) being that the future perfect
forms have somewhat more emphasis.^ In Greek
the active forms are rare at all times.

TOi/Sc 8' irfiav emovra SeBi^ofiai o^ii hovpL
II, V. 238. Him, as he presses on, I will
receive on my sharp spear.
ifjLol Se fidXurra XeXei'yjrera^ SXr/ea \vypd.
n, xxiv. 742. And to me specially will
grievous sorrows be (remain) left.
Emm in obsidione linquet, inimicum animos
auxerit? Plant. Aain, 280. He will
leave his master in the siege and will in-
crease the courage of his foes.
Capiam coronam mi in caput, adsimulabo
me esse ebrium | Atque illuc sursum
escendero; inde optume aspellam virum.
Plant. Amph, 999. Til put a crown on
my head, pretend to be drunk, and
climb up aloft yonder; from there I'll
best drive the hero away.
Cp. Tu vero nvdum pectus Idcerata sequeris \

Xiyerc . . . elfflw fj fii/j ; ffvynrUffOe i) o0 ; Pl&to, Symp. 213 A ; though
Shilleto defends vw% o9f /a^c \l/€i^<rofiai ; in Dem. xiz. § 320.

^ Goodwin, Moods and Tenses (1889), § 83, and for Latin,
F. Cramer {Archivf, kUein, Lex, iv. pp. 694 ff.).

' This paratactic construction is interesting, because the future
perfect is used to indicate the result of a future action (linquet\
while in the ordinary h3rpothetical sentence the order is inverted :
Si in obsidione erum liqtierit, inimifiorum animos augehit.

602 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 656

nee fueris noTnen lassa vocare Tueum.

Prop. ii. 13, 27. Here the two actions

expressed by sequeris and /i^ris must be

contemporary.
The idea of relative time is, however, much more
common in Latin than in Greek, and even in
Plautus is the usual meaning.

4. Uses of the Moods.

556. As we have already seen (§ 302), the im-
perative is not properly a mood, while

Different views *, .^.. .« 1

regarding the the infinitive cousists of substautivc

original mean- 1 .1 1 •!•/«» n

ing of auij. and forms bullt up ou the diflTerent types of
verb stem. We are left therefore with
only the subjunctive and optative. The original
meaning of these moods and the history of their
development is the most diflScult of the many
vexed questions of comparative syntax. Since the
publication in 1871 of Delbriick's elaborate treatise
on the uses of these moods in Sanskrit and Greek,^
the most generally accepted view has been that pro-
pounded by him. This view put in the briefest
form is that the subjunctive indicates Will,^ the op-
tative Wish. Ill later treatises Delbriick has to
some extent modified his view of the development
of these moods,® and now admits that it is impos-

^ Syntaktische Forsehungen, vol. i.

2 In other words, the subjunctive would correspond to the
English / willt thou shalt, he shall^ while the future is / shcUl,
thou toilty he will,

' Cp. S,F, iv. pp. 116 ff., V. p. 802. He restates his position,
Syntax, il pp. 849 ff., but abides by his original definitions.

— § 667 ORIGINAL MEANING OF THE MOODS 503

sible to trace certainly all uses of the sub-
junctive to the original notion of will or desire
that something should or should not take place,
or all uses of the optative to the original idea of
wish.

Some authorities oppose Delbriick's view, hold-
ing that " the subjunctive was originally and essen-
tially a form for expressing future time, which the
Greek inherited, with its subdivisions into an
absolute future negatived by ou, and a hortatory
future negatived by yJ\y and used in independent
sentences," ^ while the primitive optative also, " be-
fore it came into the Greek language, was a weak
future form, like lit may go and may he go, from
which on one side came its potential and its future
conditional use and on the other side its use in
exhortations and wishes. These uses would natur-
ally all be established before there was any occasion
to express either an unreal condition or an unat-
tained wish." *

557. The chief difSculties connected with the
question are these.

(1) The only languages which keep these moods
distinct are the Aryan group and scarcitrof
Greek. But even in the Vedic period ™***"*^-
Sanskrit is losing grip of any distinction between
the moods, and in the classical period the subjunc-
tive has disappeared. Zend and Old Persian are
not in a position to compensate for the shortcom-

1 Goodwin, Moods amd Tenses (1889), 375.
* Moods and Tenses^ p. 888. The whole appendix in which these
quotations occur deserves careful study.

504 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 667 —

ings of Sanskrit. Latin, although it retains forms
of both subjunctive and optative, has entirely con-
fused them in usage. Armenian, Grermanic, and
Letto-Slavonic have practically lost the subjunctive ;
Irish has lost the optative. Greek therefore is the
only language which retains these forms as separate
moods and in vigorous life.

(2) Though Greek and Sanskrit agree in the
main in the use of these moods, there are some
serious diflferences. For example, the history of the
Greek negative ov with certain types of subjunctive
and optative is altogether obscure, for no sure
etymology of ov has as yet been discovered. In
Differences be- Corresponding sentences in Sanskrit the
wwS kSeTS^ ^^^ Indo-Germanic negative nA is used,
moods. Greek seems therefore to have recast
these moods to some extent. The subtle usages of
these moods with Kkv and av seem to be a develop-
ment within Greek itself. At any rate, nothing
similar is found elsewhere.

(3) In Goodwin's theory it is a serious, though

not an insuperable difficulty that any
between the two distiuct divisiou between the moods i&

given up. The same objection would,
however, apply to Delbriick's theory, for, as he him-
self points out,^ Will and Wish meet in the higher
conception of Desire, the only difiference between
them being that, while wishes cover the whole field
of the attainable and unattainable alike. Will pre-
sumes the ability to attain. It might also be urged
that, as both stem and person suffixes in the two
' S.F. i. p. 16.

— § 569 MEANINGS OF THE SUB/UNCTIVE 505

moods are different,^ some important original dis-
tinction might be fairly supposed to be implied by
these differences.

(4) The shades of meaning expressed by these
moods are frequently so delicate that Difficulty of
the personal equation is likely to affect S^°?f SSS!
considerably the classification of the *"*•
facts.

It seems probable that no satisfactory solution
of the problem will be arrived at until the extent
and nature of the development of subordinate sen-
tences, including Oratio Obliqua, within the primi-
tive language has been more fully investigated than
it has yet been.*

558. Without being committed to a dogmatic
statement as to the order of development of the
usages, a statement for which there are Theauyunctave
at present no sufficient materials, it is ^a* three vmiues.
possible to distinguish three usages of the subjunc-
tive in which Sanskrit and Greek agree : (i.) in the
sense of will, equal to the English / vdll, thou shalt,
he shall; (ii.) in interrogative sentences, whether
real or rhetorical; and (iii.) as a vague future.

559. (i.) In independent sentences the 1st

^ The fact that Skt. shows secondary suffixes in the subjunctive
is not conclusive evidence to the contrary, as the fonns, even in the
earliest period, are tending towards decay.

^ Cp. now Hermann [K.Z, 33, pp. 481 ff.), who holds that there
is no proof of the existence of subordinate sentences in the original
language, a conclusion with which, like Delbriick, SyrUcuty iii. chap,
xlv., I disagree. Delbriick's latest treatment of the subject has
not added anything of importance to his previous work on the
Moods.

506 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 559

person sing, in Homer can be used (a) with aXK'
aye sometimes followed by Siy, or (6) without any
introduction after an imperative sentence. In the
plural it is used only with aXX' aye (S^) or aW
a/yere. The negative is /iw/, but in the Ist person
it is very rare, because the cases where such a usage
is required are not more numerous than in English
such constructions as " Don't let me find you there
again."
Sing.

(a) aXX' cuy iydv, 09 celo yepairepo^ evyofuu

elvai, I e^eLTTO) xal, iravra BU^ofuu.
II. ix. 60. But come now, since I avow
myself to be more honourable than thee,
let me speak and I will go through the
whole tale.

(b) ddirre fie om rd'^^co'Ta, irvKa^ 'AtSao

Treprjafo} II, xxiii. 71. Bury me with
all speed, let me pass the gates of
Hades.
Plural.

aXX' aye vvv to/iev. Od. xvii. 190. But

come, now let us go.
aXX' 076 S^ <l>pa^(Ofie0^ ottcd? eorat rdBe
epya. Od. xvii. 274. But come now
let us take thought how these things
shall be.
hi conditional clauses this construction is well
marked.

^ From such constructions the final sentence easily developed
by the addition of a deictic pronoun CtSf oOroft in the first clause,
and of an anaphoric fya, etc., in the second.

§669 THE VOLVNTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 507

€4 lyLoX ov Tiaovat fio&p eirietKe afioiffi^v, \
Svao/iac €h 'AiSoo koI iv vcKveaai
^aelvfo. Od, xii 382. If they will
not pay satisfactory recompense for my
oxen, I will (subj.) sink into Hades and
make light among the dead.
Cp. with this instance the potential usage
qualified by the particle k^v).

el Si K€ fiff JSdxoaiv, iym Se k€v aino^
eXoDfjun.. ' iZ. i. 137. If they give her not
to me, then will I take her myself.
The negative form of the first person, as has
been said, is rare.

M ^^> yipov, KotKyaiv iyo) wapct injval

Kfx^eia). II. i. 26. Let me not find

you, old man, near the hollow ships.

The afi&rmative form of the subjunctive of will

is very rare in the 2nd and 3rd persons. That it

must once have existed in the 2nd person is proved

by its ordinary negative form, the subjunctive with

fjLT], and . the 3rd person is quotable without doubt

as to the reading.

' <l>€p\ & ri/cvov, vvv koI to t^9 vrjaov fidOj)^.
Soph. Phil. 300. Come, my child, learn
now also the nature of the isle.
TO Be '^^d^urp.a to yeyovop awo rap fieoXdp
. . . dvareOa iv to lapbv rw Atop tw
'0\v/i7ruo} Elean inscrip. Cauer^, 264,

^ Delbriick, S.F. iv. p. 117, who gives up the (passage in
Sophocles on the ground that the text generally is untrustworthy.
It is probably one of Sophocles' frequent experiments in language
on the analogy of ^pe fidOw,

608 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 669

CoUitz, DX, No. 1172. Let the resolu-
tion passed by the council be dedicated
in the temple of Olympian Zeu&
Some passages where kIv or av is usually read
border closely upon the 2nd person of this type.

i] K€P ifjL^ viro Sovpl rt/Trel? airo Ovfiov
oTUaajj^. 11. xi. 433. Or smitten
under my spear shalt thou .lose thy life.^
The ordinary aorist construction of the 2nd
person with /i^ requires no illustration. It can
hardly be doubted that this usage is older than the
development of the aorist imperative. The rule
that a present imperative and an aorist subjunctive
must be used. in negative commands seems to pre-
vail in Old Latin as in Greek, ne time, fitf <j>€vy€ ;
ne dixeris, /iff Xi^s*^

The third person has a very emphatic force in
such passages as —

ovfc eaO' 0VTO9 aptfp ovS' eaaerac oifSk
yevTjTai, Od. xvi. 437. There is not
such a man, nor will nor can there be.'
560. (ii.) The interrogative subjimctive is com-

^ In the context thou wUt would be hopelessly weak.

2 This was written before Elmer {A.J,P. xv. pp. 133 ff.) had over-
thrown by simple enumeration of instances the dictum of Madvig
which has been credited for fifty years. Between Terence and Livy
there are but eleven instances of the type ne dixeris, outside Cicero's
letters. The precise shade of meaning expressed by the pft. subj.
with ne has been much discussed. See Bennett's criticism of
Elmer {Cornell Studies, ix. pp. 48 ff.) and Elmer's rejoinder {A,J,P.
xxi. pp. 80 ff.). Delbriick {Syntax, ii. pp. 376 ff.) sees in it, no
doubt rightly, the special aorist value.

' Compare Shakespeare's Nay, it will please him icell ; it shall
(*.«. is sure to) please him {Henry V, v. 2. 269).

—§661 THE INTERROGATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 509

monest with the 1st person in both prose and
poetry.

& fjboi iyd), ri irddta ; M, xi. 404. Woe
is me, what shall I do ? ( = what is to
become of me ?)
This usage is close to that of the future ; compare
TL irddto ; Tt hk Bp& ; rl Bk fii^acofiai ; Aesch.
S.c:T. 1057, with tl 7rd0a>; rl Be fii^aofiai;
Soph. Trach. 973. If the future is the old aorist
subjunctive, fi'qacofiac and firjaofiai are of course
merely different formations from the same aorist
stem. But as the negative of this subjunctive
construction is fii^ it is clearly differentiated from
the potential

The only example of the 2nd person in this
construction (ir&s oZv ir elTrrjs on a-vviaraXfuii,
KOKoh] Eur. H,F. 1417) is possibly corrupt, and
is generally emended into hv eiiroi^.

The 3rd person is fairly common, especially in
the orators.

ri etTTTj Tt9 ; Demosthenes, xxi. 197.
tI irorja-oaaiv ; Dem. xxix. 37.

Compare also co/Ltot 67a), ri irdOto ; tL vv fioi
firjKifOTa yivtiraVf Od. v. 465.

For the negative type compare <f>&fjL€v outcd? v m^
^&fi€v ; Plato, Oorg, 480 I) ; and iroTcpov oip r^fiiv
0 T€Ta^fi€PO^ iirl ToU vofioi,^ firfBev tocovtov irpoa-'
arfopevTj, . . . koX firj <f>pd^'p, . . . irapafivOia^ Bk ovBk
iv TrpoaBiB^ ; Plato, Legg. 719 F.

561, (iii.) The use of the subjunctive as a
future is common in Homer both with and without
particlea

510 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 661 —

ov *ydp TTO) Tolov^ tSop av€pa^ ovSk Ihtofiai.

B. i 262. Never yet saw I such men

nor shall I see them.

The 2nd person hardly occurs/ for the passage

i7. xi. 433 cited above has a difTerent shade of

meaning. The 3rd person is commonest in the

phrase —

KaL irork t^9 etirQai, iZ. vi. 459 and else-
where. And some day they will say.
In other phrases it is accompanied by av or Kev,
the fine distinctions expressed by which are a matter
concerning Greek grammar only, as they seem to
have developed within the language.

562. The original usages of the optative in
The optative hEgS™?^® scntenccs seem to have run

three values, parallel to thosc of the subjunctive We
can distinguish (i.) the usage in wishes ; (ii) the
usage in questions, a construction to which av is
generally added in Greek ; (iii) a potential usage
which may refer to present, past, or future time.
The negative in wishes is /aiJ,^ in the potential
usage ov : out' av SvvalfjLfjv fiijr eiria-raifiTfv Xiyeiv,
Soph. Antig. 686. The particles kIv and av are not
used with (i.), but are common with (ii.) and (iii.).
Wishes are often preceded by such particles as eXOe,
el yap, etc.

563. (i.) The nature of the wish is different
according to the person used.

^ According to Goodwin (if. T. § 284) the only example of the
2nd person is //. zxiv. 551, oi84 /uv djfffHfffeu * wplif koI /caicdy AXXo

'^ In Yedic Skt. md is found in only one instance with the op-
tative. Otherwise the negative is nd throughout {8,F. v. p. 337).

— §664 THE OPTATIVE OF WISH 611

Ist Person —

€1^' fi)9 fi^dioi^fii, ffif} re fioi l/iireSo^ etff.
Od. xiv. 468. Would that now 1
were as young and my strength were
as firm.
Cp. fiff fjLctv davrovBi ye koI aK\€t&^ airo-
\oi/jL7)v. IL xxii. 304. Let me not
perish, etc.
The 2nd and 3rd persons are specially used as a
sort of suggestion or exhortation.

€1 rivd irov Tpcotop i^aXfievo^ avhpa
^aXoiada. IL xv. 571. I wish you
would jump out and shoot some Trojan.
aXX' €? Tt9 fcai Tova-Be fiero^'xpfievo^
KaXeaeiev, IL x. 111. I wish some-
body would go after these men and call
them.
564. (ii.) The optative in Attic Greek without
ai/ is so rarely used interrogatively that many
authorities would emend the passages where it
occurs or treat them as mere anomalies.^ They
preserve, however, an ancient construction which
has become rare in Greek.

reap, Zev, ivvatri^v rk avSp&v vTrep^aala
Kardaxot ; Soph. Antig. 605. Thy
power what human trespass can limit ?

^ Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, § 242. The instances of this
construction have been properly treated by A. Sidgwick in appen-
dices to his editions of the Agamemnon and Choephori, and more
fully in an article in the Classical Beview, vii. pp. 97 ff. (cp.
Goodwin, Harvard Studies^ yii pp. 8 f. ). Hale's elaborate disserta-
tion {TransaetioTis of American Philological Associaiiont 1893, pp.
156 ff.) does not se^m to me convincing.

512 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 664

"Eui.Alc. 52. Is it possible that Alcestis

could reach old age ?
ovK eaO^ oirto^ Xe^ai/ii rh yp-evSrj KoXd.

Aesch. Agam. 620. It is not possible

that I should make a false tale fair.
With the last passage we may compare oifK eaB*
&9 o"^9 76 Kvva'i K€<f>aXrjf: diraXdXKot, IL xxii. 348,
which, however, has a diflferent history. The
Homeric construction, instead of coming ifrom the
interrogative and deliberative usage (cp. the sub-
junctive, § 560), arises from (iii.) the vague future
use.

565. (iii) Under the vague future or potential
use we may also rank the concessive use ; compare
the English hesitating he might go, which, though
referring to the same future time as he may go and
he wUl go, expresses greater remoteness of the
possibility of his going than either of the others.
This construction is so likely to be confused with
wishes, especially in the 2nd and 3rd persons, that
even in the Homeric period ap and /ck are the rule
with the potential optative, though a certain number
of the older constructions still survive. The in-
stances cited from Attic are mostly very doubtful.
They are, however, all optatives from verbs of say-
ing, and seem to be related to the subjunctive type
elirjj TVS (§ 561); Kal Oaaaovfj Xiyov rt?^ i^pru-
IkkvtK I 'trdiXovs Trap avrov BeoTTorrfP ifrrqaa/iev,
Eur. Hipp, 1186.

^ Wecklein's emendation X^omtii', although supported by /. T,
836, seems unnecessary.

— §667 INDICATIVE IN WISHES 513

566. The distinction (if any^) between sentences
of this type with av and those without av is very
subtle. Compare —

(a) avrap toi koX teelv^ iyo) trapafivOr}-

aaifArfv | t§ Ifiev 17 k€v Bt) av, K€Xcuv€<f>€^,
^€fjLov€vrj^, IL XV* 45.

(b) Kol S' &p T0J9 aXXoiatv eyei> irapafiv-

0 7)0- a I /If} V I oXxai^ airoifKeUiv. IL ix.

417.
Monro, in his edition of the Iliad, translates
the optative in (a) by " I am ready to advise/' as
expressing a concession ; in (6) by " I should
advise." The construction in other clauses, however,
shows no concessive meaning: ov ri KaKtinepov aXKo
irdOoifii, II. xix. 321, "I could not suffer aught
worse " ; 'x^pfidhiov Xdfie, h ov Svo 7' avBpe <j>€poi€v,
IL V. 302, "which two men could not carry."

567. The application in Attic Greek of indica-
tive forms to express wishes or conditions that can
no longer be fulfilled is in the Homeric period not
yet fully developed. Forms of &<f)€\op are alone
used for wishes impossible of fulfilment, and in the
apodosis of conditional sentences of the same nature
the optative with k€ is used, though rarely, for the
more common past indicative with av.^

Kal vv K€v lv0* aTToXotro, , . . el /iff ap
o^if vorfo-ev. IL v. 311. He would
have perished, if she had not quickly
^perceived him.

^ Goodwin {M, T. § 240) treats the optatives without k^ or ap
simply as exceptions to the general rale.
« Goodwin, M.T. §440.

2 L

514 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS % 568 —

5. The Latin Subjunctive.

568. Latin has suffered so much mutilation
before the beginning of the historical period that,
as has been already mentioned, its mood system is
of little use for the purposes of comparison with
other languages. As fSeir as usage is concerned
two members only of the subjunctive series can
be regarded as lineal descendants of Indo-Germanic
forms. These are the present and the perfect-
aorist. The forms ordinarily called imperfect and
Latin imperfect plupcrfcct must havc developed their
roj. t^^t^- meaning within the separate history
veiopinent ^f ^^c Italic group of dialects: Osc
fvxUL : lAtfaret, Osa [h]errln8 ( = ^herserU for *heri-
sent, from herio " wish," a verb of the same type
as capio) : cp. Lat. caperent, with -e- for -i- through
influence of -r-; PaeL wpsaseUr: Lat. op(e)raretur.
No pluperfect form has been found in the other
dialects, no doubt because the nature of the records
found in them is not such as to require it. Whether
they be regarded as modifications of original aorist
types or as compounds with the substantive verb
(§ 515), these forms have no exact parallels else-
where. The periphrastic forms containing a future
participle are of later origin.

569. The history of the present and the perfect-
aorist subjunctive is tolerably clear. The construc-
tions of both are parallel to the Greek constructions
to a large extent. Both subjunctives show the
same close relationship with the future ; the perfect-
aorist subjunctive is combined with a negative

— § 670 PAST TENSES OF LATIN SUBJUNCTIVE 516

precisely as the aorist subjunctive is in Greek ;
M Se/fi79 ; ne dixeris ; ne dixis istuc} Plant.
A^n. 839.

570. The imperfect and pluperfect present
greater difficulties. Their usages in Plautus are
different in many respects from those of the best
classical period, while in the later period, when the
forms of Latin are passing into Bomance, they
undergo an important change in meaning. The
pluperfect takes the place of the imperfect subjunc-
tive, while the latter by the loss of its endings
becomes confused with the infinitive and disappears.
The names, imperfect and pluperfect, are given to
these forms from one of their chief usages in the
classical period. But even then the imperfect
so-called is in unreal conditions a present : si velim,
posdm is the more frequent type in Plautus, d
vellem, possem in Cicero ; in signification both are
identical The pluperfect, on the other hand, is
found used as the equivalent of both imperfect and
perfect-aorist. But the history of these two cases
must be different. When the pluperfect is used
as the equivalent of an imperfect, we are at once
reminded of the history of the Greek pluperfect

' It is to be remembered that etymologically dixeris and dixis
are optatives. Even if, as Brugmann (following Madvig) assumes,
dixeris is the old subj. {i.e. the Latin fat. pft. indie. ), it is clear from
the deponent and passive nsages that the Romans themselves had no
perception of a difference in this constmction between it and the
perf. snbj. the old optative. The difference of form between the
paradigms of dixero and dixerim is confined to the Ist pers. sing. ,
and the quantity of the -i- of dixerUis, etc (fut. pft ), was soon
confused with that ofdixeritiSf etc. (pft. subj.). See Rolfe, Class.
Rev. X. pp. 190 f.

516 THE USES OF THE VERB FORMS § 670

indicative. No doubt the development was the
same here ; the so-called imperfect is formed from
a durative present stem, the so-called pluperfect
is obviously formed from a perfect stem and may
therefore be expected to represent not a process but
a state (§ 549). The idea of relative time cannot
be got out of Cicero's cum Hit homo avdacissimns
conscientia convictus reticuisset, patefeci {Cat. ii.
6. 13); reticuisset is when he }iad became silent,
i.e. while he was silent, the pluperfect of an incep-
tive verb being the exact equivalent of the imper-
fect of a verb expressing a stata^ On the other
hand, since the Latin perfect has to discharge at
the same time the duties of an aorist, forms of the
perfect subjunctive may have a past meaning, and
therefore we find in Plautus such constructions
as audivi ut expugnavisses regemque Pterdam
occideris, Amph. 746, where the two clauses are
parallel.

As this question concerns the history of Latin only,
it cannot be further discussed here. But the develop-
ment of the subjunctive forms and the changes in
their signification within the historical period should
form one of the most striking chapters in that
historical grammar of the Latin language which
has still to be written.

^ Cp. Foth {Boehmer*8 Jtomanische StudieUf it p. 313), who was
the first to set this matter in its proper light. Blase {Otschiehte
d. Pluaquamperfekts, p. 82) disputes this, wrongly in my opinion.

APPENDIX

A.
The Greek and Latin Alphabets

[The chief recent authorities for this subject are Taylor, The
Alphabet, vol. it ; Eirchhoff, Studien zur Gesehichie des griechischen
Alphabets *] E. S. Roberts, Introdiietum to Gfreek Epigraphy ;
Hinrichs in ed. 1, Larfeld in ed. 2, of vol. i. of I. Miiller's Hand-
huh; Schlottmann in Riehm's ffandwcrterhtieh des Biblisehen
AltertumSf s.y. Sehri/l und Sehri/lzeiehen ; Pauly's Beal-Eneyclo-
p&die (new ed.), s.v. Alphabeit; Lindsay, The Latin Language;
and for the Italic alphabets, von Planta, Orammatik der oskisch-
umbrisehen Dialehte; Conway, T?^e Itdlie Dialects, vol. ii.]

601. The alphabet, wherever it may have originated,
undoubtedly came to the Greeks from the Phoenicians. The
Phoenician alphabet, identical with the Hebrew, consisted
of twenty-two letters. The oldest specimen of this alphabet
that we possess and that can be dated with approximate
certainty, is in the inscription upon the Moabite stone, the
fragments of which are now in the Louvre. This stone,
discovered in 1868 in the ruins of the ancient Dibon, records
the triumph of Mesha, King of Moab, over his enemies. The
date is some years after 896 B.c.^ The letters of this in-
scription bear a surprising resemblance to those of early

^ Mesha was a tributary of Ahab, King of Israel, and rebelled
after Ahab^s death (2 Kings iii. 4, 6).

518 APPENDIX A

Qreek inscriptionB. But the art of writing was undoubtedly
known to the Semitic races of Western Asia many centuries
before the time of Mesha. The Greeks must have received
the alphabet from the Phoenicians while the Phoenicians
still carried on an active trade with Greece. But this trade
seems to have been already on the wane in the eleventh
century b.c..^ ; hence we may conclude that the art of
writiug was known to the Greeks from at least the twelfth
century.

602. The alphabet as borrowed from the Phoenicians
was not well adapted for Greek uses. It had no vowel
symbols ; it had a superfluity of breathings and sibilants.
The signs for Aleph, He and Ain' were adopted for the
vowels a, « and o, while Yod, the symbol for y (|) was utilised
for the vowel t. The Greek treatment of thi^e of the four
sibilants, Zain (Eng. s), Samech (s), Sade («) and Shin (s^),
IB less certain. Zain was kept in the place which it had in
the Phoenician alphabet, but with the value of Greek ^
(§ 118), and with a name corrupted from Sada Greek <r
follows p precisely as in the Hebrew alphabet Shin follows
Resh, while, on the other hand, if the name (r&yfia is not
merely connected with fri^in as the hissing letter, it looks as
if borrowed from Samech. Samech follows the symbol for
N and on the Moabite stone has a form £ closely resembling
that of the ordinary Greek 3. In the Greek inscriptions
there are two symbols which are used in different dialects
for (T, viz. M (sometimes f^) and ^. The form of Sade,
written from right to left on old Hebrew gems and coins ^^
bears considerable resemblance to the Greek ^, when, as is
common in the early inscriptions, it is written from right to
left like the Semitic letter. Shin appears on the Moabite
stone as W which Ib identified with Z, the angle at which

^ Such is the ordinary view. Beloch {BKeiniKhM Muaeum, 49,
p. 118) puts the date of Phoenician influence on Greece as low as
the 8th century.

* The Hebrew names of the Semitic letters are given at the head
of the different sections of the 119th Psalm, which is an acrostic
composition.

THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 519

letters are written varying considerably in early and rude
inscriptionfi.

603. The Phoenician alphabet ended with T. Thus all
letters in the Greek alphabet after r are developments
within Greek itself. Of the new letters v is the earliest
The most plausible explanation of v is to identify it with
the ancient Vau which occupied the sixth place in the
Phoenician alphabet and had the value of ir (j^). On the
Moabite stone Vau has a form closely approaching to Y.
This explanation of v receives plausibility not merely from the
resemblance in form but also from the parallel treatment of
Yod. A new symbol known to us from its shape as digamma
(f) then replaced Vau with its value as y (§ 171). Whether
this symbol was an adaptation of the preceding E or
whether it was a modification of the original Vau symbol,
is hard to decide. Some forms of Vau on ancient Hebrew
gems make the latter view possible. The seventh and
eight letters (Cheth and Teth) in the Phoenician alphabet
were used for the rough breathing (then written H) and
for 9 respectively .1 The only other letter in the Phoenician
alphabet which differs from the forms in the Greek alphabet
as ordinarily used is Koph or Qdph which stands before the
symbol for Besh (R). This symbol was preserved in some
Greek dialects, t.g, Corinthian, for a long time before o and v
sounds ; compare the Latin Q, which is the same letter.

The Greek symbols which still remain to be provided
for are ^, Xi ^» <^ The authorities differ widely as to the
origin of these forma Some writers maintain that <^ is
developed from one of the forms of Eoph, x ai^d ^ from
byforms of the Phoenician T and Vau respectively. Many
other views as to their origin are still held by eminent
scholars and will come up again in the next section. 12 is
most likely merely a modification of O, which was used in
Miletus to indicate the long o-sound by at latest 800 B.G.
It must, however, be remembered that these modifications of
and additions to the original alphabet were the work of a

^ The first step towards the use of Tdk as 9 was the writing of
8H, the next the use of 8 alone.

520 APPENDIX A

considerable period and that while some remote and less pro-
gressive districts were long content with a primitive alphabet
in which PH, KH. PZ did duty for the later single letters
<^ X» ^> ^^ ^^^7 commercial towns like Miletus made rapid
improvements in the alphabet as handed down to them.

604. There were amongst the Greeks^ two distinct
alphabets, resembling one another in most respects, but
differing in the representation of ^, x ^^^ ^ <>^ rather in
the value which they attach to the symbols X and T* Of
the one type the Greek alphabet as usually written is the
descendant, the Latin alphabet and through it the alphabets
of Western Europe ^ generally are the representatives of the
other. These alphabets are generally distinguished as the
Eastern and the Western. The Western alphabet was used
in Euboea and the whole of continental Greece except

' One branch of the Greek family — the Cyprian — did not use
an alphabet but a syllabary of the same nature as that in which
the cuneiform inscriptions of many Asiatic nations are written.
This syllabary did not distingaish between breathed stops, voiced
stops and aspirates ; hence the two symbols to-U may mean rhrr€^
rddty Tudt, d&re, 669% rh ^^ etc. Another very primitive method
of writing has been unearthed in Crete by Mr. A. J. Evana
{Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiv. pp. 270 ff.). The number of
inscriptions that have been discovered in this script is now very
large, and they have been found at many widely separated points
in the Mediterranean basin. The number of symbols discovered
amounts to several hundreds ; according to Prof. Flinders Petrie
the symbols of the Semitic and Greek alphabets come from this
source and are those which had a numerical value. The script
is connected with the so-called *' Mycenaean" civilisation which
was at its height, in Greek lands at any rate, between 1500 b.c.
and 1000 b.c. At Cnossus in Crete, Mr. Evans has discovered
still another form of writing which {Athenaeum, June 23, 1900,
p. 793) he attributes to the indigenous '*Eteocretan" stock subdued
by the ** Mycenaeans."

' The Russian alphabet is a modification of the Greek alphabet
as it appeared in the 9th century a.d. Some symbols had to be
added to the Greek alphabet owing to the greater number of
sounds in Slavonic which had to be represented.

THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 521

Attica, the north-eaet coast of the Peloponnese, and the
colonies like Corcyra and Syracuse which sprang wholly or
partly from that area. The Western colonies with the
exceptions mentioned above also used this alphabet. The
Eastern alphabet was employed in Asia Minor and in most
of the islands of the Aegean ; Crete, Melos, and Thera alone
retaining for a long period a more primitive and less
complete alphabet The Western alphabet, as Latin shows,
placed X after V (v) and used as its symbol X which in the
Eastern alphabet was used for \, "^ or a local form ^ was
used for \, The combination tto* was generally left without
a symbol, although in Arcadia and Locris a new symbol
is invented by adding a perpendicular line in the middle of
the symbol X-

In the Eastern alphabet as here described there were still
some variations from the present Greek alphabet H was
still used to represent not i] but the vpvniui asper ; E re-
presented €, 77, and the " improper " diphthong €i which arises
by phonetic changes (§ 122); O after the introduction of £2
remained the symbol for o and for the non-diphthongal ov.
The lonians of the mainland lost the aspirate very early and
employed H, no longer necessary in this value, as the equi-
valent of 77. The complete Ionic alphabet, which is the
alphabet now in use, was first officially adopted at Athens in
403 B.C., although it is clear that the alphabet was in
ordinary use at Athens considerably earlier.^

605. From the alphabet of the Qreeks settled in Magna
Graecia came the alphabets used by the Etruscans, Romans,
Oscans, Umbrians, and the smaller tribes of the same stock.
There seems to be little doubt that the Etruscans were the

^ It may be mentioned that, apart from the great divisions
of the alphabet which are discussed here, there were a large
number of minor local peculiarities which enable scholars to
assign with great definiteness the earlier inscriptions to their
original home. This becomes increasingly difficult after the
introduction of the Ionic alphabet. We have then to rely on the
local dialectic forms, bat with the appearance of the koiv^ (§ 64)
these tend more and more to disappear.

522 APPENDIX A

first to adopt the alphabet and handed it on to the Oscans
and Umbrians. The shape of the Latin letters, which is in
many respects very different from the Greek to which we are
accustomed, is almost entirely an inheritance from the Qreek
alphabet of the Chalcidic colonies, in which letters exactly
corresponding to those of Latin can be found except in the
case of P and G. In the oldest Latin, however, P is P
as in Chalcidic, and it seems probable that G was introduced
instead of the useless ^ by Appiua Claudius Caecus in 31 2 B.c.
The borrowing of the alphabet must have been at a com-
paratively early period since in all the dialects the earliest
writing is from right to left.

606. The alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups,
of which one is formed by the Latin and Faliscan, the other
by the Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian. The main distinction
between the two groups is that in the former the sound of/
is represented by the ancient Vau (F), while in the latter it is
represented by a symbol more or less closely resembling the
figure 8. The history of this difference is not clear. In the
earliest Latin inscription, which is on a fibula found at
Praeneste and published in 1887, we find FHEFHAKED
written for the later *f^aGid. FH for the sound / seems to
show that at the period of writing (probably in the sixth
century B.C.) F still retained its ancient value as \k and that
the aspirate was added to show that the sound was not
voiced but breathed as in the Corcyrean PH for p (§ 119).
But a9 V was used for both the consonant ]^ and the vowel u,
F came to be used alone with its modem value. It is
contended by many authorities that the other group made
its new symbol for / from the second member of the group
FH at a time when H had still its ancient closed form B)
for an artistic stonemason might readily alter the two
rectangles into two diamond-shaped or circular figures.^

607. The main argument for deriving even the Latin
alphabet from the Chalcidic through the intermediate stt^

^ In Umbrian this closed H is retained with its usual valae in
the shape 0.

THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS 523

of the Etroscan, is the confusion in symbols between breathed
and voiced stops, which Etruscan did not distinguish. The
balance of evidence is against this theory, though it would
explain how the Greek rounded y (C) came to have in Latin
the same value as K and to oust it from all except a few
forms stereotyped in the official style.

608. The Umbrian, Oscan and Faliscan alphabets show
similar but more numerous traces of Etruscan influence.
Faliscan like Etruscan has no symbol for B, Etruscan had
no JD ; neither has Umbrian, and the Oscan form q is
obviously a restoration from the form for r with which the
form for (2 had become confused. A still more important
resemblance to Etruscan is that neither Oscan nor Umbrian
has a symbol for o originally, V representing both original o
and original it sounds. At a later period Oscan distinguished
0 forms by placing a dot between the arms of the V, V* It
also distinguished i-sounds wl^ich came from original e by a
separate symbol |-.^ Umbrian has two further symbols ;
(1) c^ used to denote a peculiar pronunciation of original d
which is represented in Umbrian monuments written in the
Latin alphabet by r«, and (2) ^J, used for the palatal pro-
nunciation of h before e and t, which is represented in Latin
writing by \, They are now often transliterated by f or c!^
and f .

609. The symbols for the aspirates were not required by
the Italic alphabets although Umbrian keeps d in the form 0.
Some of the Roman numeral symbols were however derived
from them; M= 1000, which appears in early inscriptions
as (D with many variants produced by opening the side
curves,^ there can be little doubt is <^, while half the symbol
(D) is used for 500. We may gather from Etruscan that 6

' These symbols when they appear in small type are generally
printed ti, i. They are represented with greater clearness by %, f ,
the latter introduced by Mommsen, the former by Prof. E. S.
Conway.

^ The symbol M, according to Mommsen {JSermes^ xxii p. 601),
is used by the Romans only as an abbreviation for miXU^ milia,
never as a number. Hence it is a mistake to write MM =2000.

524 APPENDIX A

was the earlier form out of which the Latin C = 1 00 de-
veloped by asdmilation to the initial letter of cenivjtn when
the original value was forgotten. The Chalcidic \^ viz. \]/,
had its side limbs made horizontal X L ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^o' ^0.
^— 10 Ib found in Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan as well as
Latin ; whether it was the Chalcidic ^ — as a letter, x is found
only in Latin and Faliscan — is uncertain. Whatever its
origin, V = 5 is obviously meant for the half of it

B.
The Greek Dialects

[The chief collections of materials are the yolames of the
Corpus Inseriptionum Orneearum, the collection of dialect in-
scriptions edited by Collitz and Bechtel with the help of many
other scholars and still unfinished {SamnUung der griechischen
DieUekt-lTischriflen), Caner's Delectus Inseriptionum Oraeearum
propter dialeetum tnemorahiHum^^ 1883, and Bechtel's Inschriflen des
ionisehen Dialektes, Among the most important treatises may be
mentioned (1) Meister's Die griechischen Dialekte, of which two
Tolumes founded on Ahrens' treatise De Gh'oecae linguae Dialeetis
haye appeared, the first (1882) containing Aeolic (as defined in
§ 621), the second (1889) Elean, Arcadian, and Cyprian ; (2)
Hoffmann's Die griechischen Dialekte (3 vols., 1891, 1893, 1898),
covering in vols. 1 and 2 even more fiilly the same ground except
Elean and Boeotian, and in vol. 3 dealing with the sources and
phonology of Ionic ; (8) H. W. Smyth's The Greek Dialects (Ionic
only), 1894. A useful summaiy of the main facts of Doric is
given in Boisaoq's handy compilation, Zes dialedes doriens, 1891.
The dialects of North Greece are treated by H. W. Smyth {A.J,F,
yii. pp. 421-445). An excellent risumd of all the dialects is given
in Pezzi's Lingua Oreca Antica, 1888, to which I am much
indebted.]

610. The physical features of Greece are such as to en-
courage the growth and maintenance of many separate
dialects. Lofty mountain ridges divide valley from valley,
thus rendering possible the existence of a large number of
small communities politically independent and each in fre-

526 APPENDIX B

quent conflict with its nearest neighbours. Separate societies
under one political government tend to become more homo-
geneous in language ; when a single society is broken into
two parts under different political governments the parts
tend to gradually diverge in language as in institutions (cp.
§64).

611. The racial origin of a people need not throw any
light upon the language it speaks, for many causes may lead
in time to the loss of the ancestral language and the accept-
ance of another. The Norse settlers in Normandy adopted
a dialect of French instead of their native tongue ; after
their settlement in England they gradually resigned their
French in favour of English. EngHsh itself is encroaching
more and more upon the area in which Keltic dialects used
to be spoken. It is therefore clear that a people may remain
ethnologically almost pure and yet from political circum-
stances or self-interest change its language. But although
history wUl not supply a trustworthy key to the facts of
language, nevertheless history and language will frequently
corroborate one another.

612. The Greeks of the Peloponnese and of Phthiotis in
Thessaly who formed the expedition to Troy are known to
Homer as Achaeans. The peoples who play a great part in
later times, Dorians, Aeolians, lonians, are to Homer little
more than names. According to Greek tradition, it was some
eighty years after the Trojan war that the Peloponnese was
invaded and conquered by a people from the north or north-
west— the Dorians. The invaders, like the Normans in
England, established themselves as a conquering caste, but in
the countries under their authority the conquered Achaeans
still survived, partly as freemen without political rights, partly
as slaves. According to Herodotus (viii. 73) the people is
the centre of the Peloponnese — the Arcadians — had remained
in their mountain fastnesses undisturbed by this invasion.
In Arcadia then, if anywhere, we may look for the dialect of
the ancient Achaeans. Cyprus was colonised from the Pelo-
ponnese and more especially from Arcadia, and inscriptions
show the dialects to be closely akin. The branch of the race

THE GREEK DIALECTS 627

settled in Phthiotis also spread eastward to Asia Minor, and
we find two great dialect areas with a form of language very
similar, viz. Thessalj in northern Qreece and Aeolis in the
north-west of Asia Minor. In Boeotia a similar dialect is
found, crossed, however, with many Doric peculiarities.
Ancient legend hints at some such mixture by a story that
the Boeotians dislodged from Arne in Thessaly poured down
into the Cadmeian land. These Boeotians must have been
Dorians, and Doris the land from which they derive their
name is in the heart of the mountainous region between
Thessaly and Boeotia. We might therefore expect to find
resemblances between the dialects of north-west Greece and
those of the Dorians of the Peloponnese. Our documents,
however, leave us with a long gap of some centuries between
the time of the legendary separation of the Peloponnesian
Dorians from the northern Dorians and existing records.
There was no direct communication between the tribes thus
separated, and hence many differences between the dialects of
north-west Greece and of the Peloponnese have had time to
grow up. So great are these differences that some of the best
authorities separate these dialects into two distinct groups.
The northern Eleans according to Herodotus were Aetolians
and therefore members broken off at a later time from the
main stock which remained to the north of the Gulf of Corinth.
The Athenians boasted that they and their ancestors had
lived through all time in Attica. They were known as
lonians and identified themselves in origin with tribes living
in Euboea, in some of the islands and in a large district on
the coast of Asia Minor.

613. There are thus three main stocks, (i.) the Achaean,
consisting of Arcadians and Cyprians on the one hand and
Aeolians of Asia Minor and Lesbos, Thessalians and Boeotians
(partly) on the other, (ii.) the Dorian, originally resident north
of the Gulf of Corinth but most powerfully represented by its
warlike emigrants to Sparta, Argolis, and Corinth, and (iii.) the
Attic-Ionic. These stocks in process of time sent out off-
shoots which planted the shores of the Black Sea, the north
coast of Africa and the western Mediterranean on the
European side with numerous colonies, some as Cumae in

528 APPENDIX B

Italy dating back to the legendary era soon after the Trojan
war, others as Amphipolis in Thrace or Thurii in 80utheni
Italy belonging to the middle of the historical period.

614. For knowledge of any dialect we are indebted to
three sources, all of which in some cases may not be available.
These sources are (i.) literature, (iL) grammarians and lexico-
graphers, (iii.) inscriptions. Neither of the first two sources
can be trusted by itself. For (o) before the invention of
printing, when scribes had to copy the works of authors^
there was a constant liability to error in matters of dialect,
since the scribe was likely to write inadvertently the forms of
his own dialect in place of those in the manuscript before
him or to mistake the reading of forms with which he was
not familiar. When a manuscript thus incorrectly written
was itself copied, the number of errors in matters of dialect
was likely to be greatly increased. Hence sometimes, as in
some works of Archimedes the Syracusan mathematician, the
almost total disappearance of the dialect element ; hence
too the occasional occurrence of two widely divergent copies
of the same work. For example, the treatise by Ocelius
Lucanus Dt Rerum Natura is preserved in Attic, although
Stobaeus quotes it in Doric Owing to the same cause the
exact treatment of Ionic in the hands of Herodotus is still to
some extent a matter of dispute, the manuscripts varying
greatly as to the contraction of vowels and the like.

615. (6) There is, however, a more subtle source of error.
Much of the Greek dialect literature is in poetry, and it is
hard to tell in many cases how far corruption of dialect is
due to the poet himself or to his transcriber. A later Greek
poet might reasonably be expected to be influenced by
Homeric diction ; he might use a borrowed word which
suited his verse better or, even though well acquainted with
the dialect, he might use a conventional form which was not
actually spoken.^ That the dialect writing of Theocritus

' To take a modem instance, Bums does not write pure Scotch
although bom and bred a Scotchman. Even in what might be
supposed his most characteristically national poem Scots voha hae,
of these three words wha and hoe are only conventional changes of

THE GREEK DIALECTS 529

was conventional is admitted by every one ; how far the early
writers of lyrics use a conventional language and how far the
dialect of their native cities, is a vexed question.

616. The grammarians are no more trustworthy, for
they often worked on insufficient data and put down forms
as belonging to particular dialects without certain evidence.
The works of the ancient grammarians, moreover, are subject
to the same dangers in copying as works of literature. The
only trustworthy evidence to be obtained with regard to any
dialect is from the records of the dialect engraved on some
permanent material, such as stone or metal, by the people
themselves and still preserved. Even here the material at
our disposal is not always to be relied on, and the genuine-
ness, authenticity, and decipherment of inscriptions must be
investigated by the canons according to which such matters
are tested in the case of literary works.

Arcadian

617. Our information regarding this dialect is derived
from (i.) inscriptions, (iL) glosses containing Arcadian words.
Most of the inscriptions in the dialect are short or consist
merely of proper names. From Mantinea comes an inscrip-
tion of the early fifth centuiy Ra, published in 1892, which
deals with sacrilege at the temple of Athena Alea at
Mantinea. From Tegea there are two longer inscriptions,
one dealing with a building contract first published in 1860,
the other regarding the right to pasture in the neighbourhood
of the temple of Athena Alea first published in 1888. The
latter, to judge by the alphabet, which is in the transition
stage between the native and the Ionic alphabet, is somewhat
older, belonging probably to the early part of the fourth

EInglish words, for Scotch uses not the interrogatiye mcKo but iKoA
as the relative, and the plural of Kavt ends in •«, the genuine
Scotch phonetically written really being ScfAa *at hiz,
2 M

530 APPENDIX B

century B.a The former, however, although written in the
Ionic alphabet, presents more characteristic features of the
dialect in less space, and part of it is therefore given here.

618. The main characteristics of the dialect, most of
which it shares with Cyprian, are these : —

i. (a) 'K%' in the preposition ^ is redaced to \ before a
following consonant : iffdoTTJpcs,

{b) -vTi becomes -va which remains : KpLviava, Cp. ItpaiL-
pdfiovffij dat. pi.

(c) Original gV' is represented by ^ and 8 the pronuncia-
tion of which is uncertain: i^ipedpop, iffdiWwres, Cp. Attic
pdpoBpw, pdWom-et.

(d) € before p became i in the preposition Ik

{e) Final o became v: dx^. The old genitive ending do
also becomes av,

(/) -01 appears for -at in the 3rd sing, middle : t^fi^'oc, etc.
Spitzer's explanation of -roc as influenced by ordinary secondary
ending seems most probable.

ii. (a) Some stems in -rft show a strong form of the root
syllable where Attic has the weak : Sw-icp^t, while Attic 2«»-
Kpdrijs has -f-.

(6) Stems in -171, whether -5-stems or -«y-stems as Ic/m^s
{=l€p€^), are inflected like stems in -17 (op. § 50).

(c) The old genitive of masculine stems in -d, Homeric
'Arpefdao, appears as -av and is followed through analogy by the
fem. a-stems o/Wau, etc.

(d) The ''contracting" verbs in du, ita, bu are of the lu.
conjugation, which is perhaps more original than the -ta type :
ddiK^rra, xoivrta,

(e) The locative has taken the place of the dative : fffy^i,
drC and i^ accompany the locative, ir-H^iri^ takes the genitive,
iroi = *TOT'S and Ip take both locative and accusative (cp. Latin in).

THE GREEK DIALECTS 631

ef k' dy Ti ylvrfToi rots ipydt^ais rocs ir rot ai>r(x
l/yyot, ffo-a irep2 r& l/yyov * iTv4ff{6)(a Si 6 dSuc/jfUPOS
rbv dSixipra t» dpjpait rpialy diri) rtu &v rb iSl-
-Kfifta yivijTOL, Ctrrepw Si fi'^' Kal &ri &7 KpLpcjptn
ol iffSorrjpetf K^piop iffrta. El Si T6\efioi Sta-
'Kfa\6<rei rt tQv (pywy tOv iaSoBimwv 1j rdnf
•iiprfxfffiiviav n <f>$4p€Uf ol rpuLKdffun SiayvdyrVf
ri del ybftaBai • ol Si orparayol TdcoSofi Toirrw,
ef K* Ay Siarol (r0«it T6\cfios ^voi 6 «c(i;Xi/[(i;]y 1j i-
'iffBopKOn tA ipyfi, Xa^uporwX/ou Hanon Karb rat
iriXios- €l Si rt(f) ipyofrfjcas fi.^ lyKexvp^KOi rcis
ipyoLSf 6 Si ir6Xe/M>s Aca^wXi/oi, ixvSdas [r]6 dpy6pioiff
rb &y X€Xa/3i7ir(«;f Tvyxdv% d^dxrOta rQ ipy<a
ef K* &y xeXeiJwi'O'i ol iffSorripti, El A* A[v] nt ^irc-
-trwUrraToi rcut iaS6<r€<n rw ipytop 1j \vfxalvri-
'TOL /car e2 A^ riya rp&ww ^OiipwPf ^afu6¥r(a
ol iaSoTTJpeSf Scat Ar Siarol ff^is ^fUeu, koU
dyKapvc[a6v}rta l» irUpiauf koX Ivayimnia
Itf SiKa<rHipio¥ rb yivbfuifow rol t\ji$1 rat
j;h/dav. Mi) i^iima Si firiSi KowSj^at yafiffOeu,
ir\iotf 1j Si^ 4tI firiS€vl rQif ipyury el Si fiijf Sifiiina
HKoffTOt TeyHiKoirra Sapx^dt' iv€\aff(d)ff0(av
Si ol aXtoffTtU' Ifjupalvey Si rbfi po\6ftevor ixl rot
iffUffffoi rat ^ofdav, Kard adrd Si xal ef k* &p [r](t
irXeov Ij Sio fpya (x*! tQp UpCav H rQy Safjip}irltay
Kar tl Si Ttpa rp&irov, Srufi dfi fiii ol AXta<rra[i]
Toprrd^tayai SfioOvftaSbr xdrret, j'a/u(^0'](d)itf
KoB* tKCunw tQw T\€b¥ia¥ ipytav Karit firjia

TttrHiKonna Sapx/M-^s, H^<rr* Sl^

rA ipya. rd rXiova,

Hoffmann's text (vol. i. p. 26). Cp. Collitz' /)./. No. 1222.

drvSbaSf ptc. of aorist from stem seen in Cypr. SoPivai, <r^ct,
ooc. pi. M^(rr' Af, cp. Thessal. fUnroSi, Homeric ^i^o-^' ijoOt,
n, viiL 508, where the right reading is possiblj /Ucir\

632 APPENDIX B

Cyprian

619. As already mentioned, the Cyprian insciiptions are
written not in the Greek alphabet but in a cuneiform sjUabary.
This syllabary was first interpreted by Qeorge Smith in 1871.
Since then much more material has been collected, and many
scholars, mostly G^man, have advanced the reading and
interpretation of the monuments. The lack of any distinction
between breathed stops, voiced stops, and aspirates, the dis-
appearance of nasals in consonant combinations, and the
difficulty with a syllabic notation of indicating a combination
of consonants, make the reading of Cyprian inscriptions an
intricate puzzle. Compare the following symbols and their
interpretation :

ta « t« 0 e mi to «0 |xi pt a
T&s M l|u rds IIo^Mis]
ta ia sa hi ra u Sroortfy^v
t mi' to sa 4|il rfi

ta sa to ro 2Too^v)8p».

The passage transcribed on the opposite page is on a
bronze plate engraved on both sides which was found at
Edalion. It is the longest Cyprian inscription. It is dated
by Meister about 389 ac, by Hofl&nann about 449 B.C.

680. i. Cyprian resembles Arcadian in all characteristic
sounds except that ^ does not change to ^s before consonants :
cp. {h) (xo(t^)<n (or possibly ex«(i'>rt), (c) fas= Attic y^, (rf) ro(y)<rt
{ = *€{<r)om), {e) yhK>iTv, and many proper names. There ia no
example of a middle optative ending in -tm. Cyprian has, how-
ever, other peculiarities which are not shared by Arcadian.

(a) Between t and v and a following vowel it indicates the
glide (§ 84) IjflrijfKw, KaT€(rK€^F{=u)affe, There is a converse
change in e^Fpfrrrdaarv for iFp — ,

(5) V did not change to it as in Attic, for in the glosses it
interchanges with o : fioxdt^^fivxoi.

(c) Such forms as |ia to for xdpra seem to show that the
vowel was nasalised as in French.

[CcTitinued on p. 534.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 533

(Ij'Ore tACv) vriihv 'HddXioi' KAriFoprfOv VLaZot kAs Kert^fes,
/(v) Tbk ^iXojci^pcaF Firti. tCj 'Oj'ao'a76|/Kiv, /Sao'iXe^ Sroo't-
KVTpos jcdt d VT6Xtt 'HdoXi^fes &Mtayop *Opdffi\op rhw 'Ovoo'i-
io^lpcai' rbv IJarijpap icds rds xcurtTPi^ot {jSiaOat r^ d(F)0/)(i&Tos
rdf 2(i') ToU fidx^ lK\fiafihos Avev fUffOtMf xds Tat eiFpvp-dffaTv
/3a<riXei)f kAj d flrT6Xts 'Oyeur/||X(M kAj toTi KoaiyinfiTOti d(i')ri tw
fUffSQy jcd d(i')Ti ra ^iffxap SoFhai i^ twa | f oUwc rwi /SairtX^fot
icAf ^f rot rrdTuFt dpy6p<a(r) rd[XaKroy] | Td[Xoi'roi']* ^ duFdvoi
tfv d(i')r2 rt!; | dpy^pup rOSe r(a TaKd{v)Tfav patnXc^ xds d
TT6X«t 'OycurfXciK «cdf roff KOuri\yvfiTois diri> rat ilSt rat PofftKijFos
ra /(f) rw Zpwyt run 'AXa(/A)ir/K;drat t^f) x^PO'' I ^^'' '(•') ^'^^
IXet rA(»») x/MV^A^'^of ''0(7)«ca(i')Toy dXfoi icds rd ripxvtja rd
^iri6(i')ra || ird(i')ro (x^ ToyiinfiWj ifFaxi lfi», drAiyi'' Ij k4 ffu
'OtfdaiXov ij T^ I KOfftyiHifros 1l t6s Toidas rw(v) iraiSup tQp
*0vaffiK6w(Hinf i^ rCk x^P^*' 'rQiSe \ i^ 6p6^, 184 irat, d i^
6p^^, TcUrei 'OrcurCkioi /rdf rois Koaiyirfyroils 1j rots toutI rbv
dpyvpo¥ r6(F)3e' dpy6p<a{v) rd[Xai'roF] | rd[Xan'ov]' | icds
*Op<iffCkb>i otFtatf dP€v Tu(p) KOfftypi/JTUP tQp aXXtaPf iFpTirdcarv
P<iffik€ii\\s xds d rr6Xtt doFipoi d{p)Tl ra i/x^pw* fio fxur0tap
dpy6p(a(p) x^XiKeFas] \\\\ w^XiKeFas] \ \\ dispaxfM.] 'H[dd-
Xta]* 1j SflfKOi pv paaiXti^s xds d 7rr6Xis 'Opoal — |

(2) -XfaH d{p)Tl tQ dpy6p<a{p) rude dn> rot ^dt rot poffiX^Fot rd
l{p) MaXopljali rdi xedljai t6{p) x^P<^ '»*^»') XP^^^^t*^^^ 'AfiTiplJa
dXFt^f xds rd riplxPija rd ^t6(F)ra ird(F)ra, rd(F) xoex^fttPOP if6s
Tb{p) p6Fo(p) t6{p) Ap^fuop icdf Tb\\s rdp UptiFijop ras 'A^dras,
Kdi Tb(p) K&TOP rbp l{p) Zlfj{fi)iSos dpol^pajt, t6{p) AiFeldepus 6
*ApiJidpevs ^€ dXFbtf r6{p) jroex^fupop Tin Ilaffay6pa\p rbp
*0paffay6pav, xds rd ripxPiJo. rd iTri6{p)Ta ird(F)ra (x^p Tapwplos
^Fais i^Pf driXtja f6(F)ra* H k4 <rtf 'OFdcrtXoF fj rbs iratdat rbi
*Opa<rCX(ap i^ rat ^ot ratde t i^ tQi KdTtai rQide i^ 6p^^ri, l\\diy 6
i^ 6p6^f Telffci 'Op€kff[X<M fj rois toktI rbp dpyvpop r6{p)8€'
dpyipu\p ir^iK€Fas] \\\\ x^XixtFas] \\ 8l[8paxMa] 'H[ddXta]-
Idi rd{p) SdXrop rd(p)S€, rd FHrija rdSe IpoKaXtfffUpa^ \ paaiXeds
Kds d TrdXis KariBijap /(f) rd(p) $i6p rdp *A0dpaP rdp rep'
'H|5dXtoF, aifp 6pK0is fi^ Xvffat rds Fprfyras rdffSe vFaTs ^. |
"Oirt ais K€ rds Fpfyras rdaSe \6crf, dpoclja Foi y^poirv' rds
xt II ^df rdaSe irdf rbs xdTOS r6c8e ol ^OpoaiK&rpiap Totdes icdf

[CorUintied on p, 535.

534 APPENDIX B

(<{) afXwy=tfXX(iv if correctly interpreted shows that the
Msimilation of -/}- was completed after the separation of the
Qreek dialects. Arcadian has tfXXos.

iL (a) The genitive singular of -o-stems at some Oyprian
towns (as Edalion) was in -iov. The origin of the -f is not dear.

(d) -F is added after the sonant nasal in accusatiyes like
l^rripav (cp. Horn. lifri\p) and d(F)dp(a(F)raF.

Aeolic

621. To Aeolic used in its widest sense belong three
dialects, (1) the dialect of Thessaly except Phthiotis which
through Doric influence has become since the Homeric period
akin to the dialects of North- West Greece, (2) the dialect of
Lesbos and of the coast of Asia Minor adjoining, (3) the
dialect of Boeotia. Of the three the dialect of Lesbos and its
neighbourhood is th^ purest because, like that of Cyprosy it
was brought less into contact with other dialects. Thes^y
was ruled by a few noble funilies, apparently of Dorian origin,
who lived in feudal state, while the earlier inhabitants had
sunk to the level of serfs and were called Penestae. In
Boeotian there is a much larger Dorian element

622. The sources for Thessalian are inscriptions and a
few statements of grammarians. For Lesbian and Asiatic
Aeolic there is a large number of inscriptions, many fragments
of lyric poetry by Sappho and Alcaeus ^ and a considerable
amount of grammaticid literature. For Boeotian the meet
important source is the inscriptions. There are ako some
fragments of the poetess Corinna The grammarians fre-
quently confuse Boeotian with the Aeolic of Lesbos. The i
Boeotian of Aristophanes (ilc/)amian«, 860 ff.) and of other '
comic poets was probably never correct, and has been farther i
corrupted in transmission by the scribea '

I
^ The Aeolic of Theocritus and of Balbilla the learned com-
panion of Hadrian's Empress is a literary imitation and not
trustworthy evidence for the dialect.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 635

r(tf(y) TcUdwy ol irajcdes l{o(y)<rt cUPtl, ot *(v) ru Ipwin rui
'"HdaKiriFi tu}{v)tn.

Hoflftnann's text (voL i. p. 69). Cp. D.L No. 60.

jrdf, seep. 844 n. 1. UfiafUvoi (ace. pi.) "hit" ^xfipwv (gen.
fem,)=iTix^ipov, i5 probably =*im2 cp. Hc-rcpoi, far=7j. dXfw
(ace. ) threshing-floor ( H. ). ripx^ija = 4»vri^ iFait l^dv meaning un-
certain,-perhaps "for ever." ire((r«t= Attic reUrei. lpa\a\ifffJL4va
perf. pass. part, from elsdkbetp "written thereon." The pro-
nominal forms Tou (enclitic particle), 6tl, <rts (=r») may be noticed.

[N.B. — Here as in other inscriptions curved brackets indicate
doubtful or worn letters, square brackets letters illegible or lost
and restored by the editor.]

The following passage from Pick's edition of the Ilictd
(i. 1-16) is an attempted restoration of the Aeolic of the
Homeric period (see § 650). Fick has now published a
slightly different recension in BB. xxi. pp. 23 ff.

Mavtv deiSc, 0ia, IXi^Xi^c'dda' 'Axi^rf^
oWofiipaPf & /wJpi' 'Axa/oiO"* AXyc* iOrjKe,
ir6XXcuf B*t4>0lfAoit if^j^ait "AFiSi xpctaif^e
ilpfiftaVf aihois W PeXdpta reOxe K<f¥€<r(n,
oltin^oiffl re irourc, Mot S^ireMfero )36XXa,
i^ & Sij rik TpQra StetrrdTov ipltravre
'ArpetSas re Fdi^a^ dv8p<if» xcU Sios *AxOOi€Vs.
rlt T*&p ff<fHa€ 04fa¥ fpidt <rvv4iiKe fidx^f^^ox;
Adrtas koX A£os vtos. o ydp paalXiji xoX(i>Oeit
vmkrffov dyd arpdrop &p<r€ xdKOP, 6\4kopto 8i X£o(,
&wpeKa rbr XpOffrfv drlfioffe dpdrripcL
*Arpet8af 8 y^p iJX^e d6tt« M vaw 'Axalw
\v<r6fi€jf6t re Scarpa ^ptav r^dxepiffffi' Axoiva,
ffrhnrar* ^wy iv x^P^^ fe«co/36Xw *Ainr6XX«i'0J
XpvcitiH, dtf ffKdirrptM koX FKlffffero irdrras *Axcdois,
'ArpetSa Si /utXtora 5()w, Koa-fn/jTope Xdwv.

636 APPENDIX B

1. Thessalian

623. The extract given is a reply of ihe people of TArisea
to a letter of Philip V. king of Macedon. The original
document first published in 1882 is of considerable lengtliy
containing two letters of the king and two replies as well as a
long list of signatories at the end. The date is soon after
Philip's second letter, which was written Ra 214. The
alphabet is Ionic. The older inscriptions are much smaller.
In this inscription the king's letters are in the koik^, the
replies in the local dialect.

1. (a) In the 3rd pi. middle -fto appears as -v^o : ^ror^
(cp. Boeotian).

(6) Original d (w) appears as ou : X'^P^i rdyroi/y, o6$.

(c) Original e (17) appears as ei: /Sa^riXetos, y^vrifjuovm
{=Xpn<rlfuap),

(d) ai in verb terminations appears as -ei : /SAXecra

(e) Final d appears as e in Sii {Sid) ; in Srd pi. 4p€ipawUror>^^
iSo^KotfA (final /a for w by assimilation before /ta-), HofTmann,
perhaps rightly, recognises the same ending as in ^poup,

(/) Wt= Attic tIs. According to Hofimann the palatalised
g-sound survived till the Greek dialects separated, with a soand
like that beginning the English ''child."

(g) Instead of compensatory lengthening as in Attic, nasals
and liquids are doubled : Kp4ppefiep (s^Kplretv), dTvarfKKa^Tos
( = dTocrreiX-). Compare xuppotf = *KvpjfiP.

ii. (a) All infinitives end in -v : SeddtrSciy, ittyuev,

(h) As a demonstrative d-i'€= Attic dfde, but both elements

are declined : rowviow.

(c) Instead of the genitive the locative is used in o-stems :

Xp6voc.

{d) /la (perhai)8=*7/in) is used=d^. It seems to occur also

with a variant grade in /Uffrodi {=f<at), which is probably to be

analysed into fica-iroS-iy troS being rather the pronoun (Lat. quod)

than the same stem as in redd, etc.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 537

Ilard^/toc ra ^xra iw' UdSi (r6yk\,€tTot

ycpofUpaSf iyopoMOfiirrovp rovy raym/y xdv-
'ToWf #(Xlinr<K roi /SaeriXetot ypdififiara Trifi^f/OPTOS tot r6f

ra76s jcgU t^ ir6Xtr, dt[^]M Ilerpcuot iccU *AMdyKiTTOt xal
'ApiffT6yoot, oOs dr ras irpeur/S[eflaf iyhovOo, iy€<paylffaoey

adrov, tSkki Kal d dfifUovy t6\is dii t6s Tcikifun to-
•TfSiero xTitidyovy roGy KaroiKeiabyTovy fUnroH k€ ody koX

ir4pos iTiyoeUrovftey dilos rot rap d/ifU
ToKireifULTos, ir roi irapediyroi Kpcyyificy \f/a^n^ff$€iy

dikfUy o(0)f K€ Tocf KaroLKiyreffffi rap dfifii Iler^o-]
-\ovy KcU rovy dWow *EX[X](Cyoi;y dodei d xoKirela — rolyeot

ydp avyreXctrOhros koX (rvyfuyydyrow rdy-
-rovy Sii rd (^i\dy0powa 7rerH<rr€iy dXXa r€ ToWd row

XfiewlfJMvy iffffiffdeiy xai i{a)vroO koI rd ir6Xi koX
rdy x^P<'^ /AoXXor i^pycurOeiffiaBety — , h/w^(rr€i ra Tokirtta

Tpourff4fiLey xtp rovyyiovy, Kar rd 6 pa-
•^iKcds iypa}//et koI row Karoudyrfatn rap dfifjik TLerOaXovy

KoX rovy SXKovy *£XXdyouF SeS6c0€ty rdy iroXt-
-relay koX airois koX itrybyon koX rd Xotird rlfua ifTapx^/uy,

aOrois Tdyra, 8ffffaT€p Aacalois, 0vXdf iXofU-
•Foct ixdffrov, Tolas ice piWeirei- r6 fid yf/d^o-fta rbye Kvppoy

(fiW^f irair wayr^ x/>^foi Kal rbs rafilas 4ff86-
-ftey oyypdrffCLv a^rb iy ordXXaf \i0las Biias xal rd dy^ftara

rovy To\iroypai/>ei04yrovy xal Kar04fi£y
rdfi fUy toy iy r6 Updy roi 'AirXouFOf rcX Kep6oloi, rdfi fid

dXXaF 4y rdy dxpinroKiy koX rdy 6yd\ay, kU kc yt-
-y^eirei, iy rdye bbfuy,

Hoffmann's text (vol. ii. p. 21). Cp. D,L No. 845.

drrai = dTh rrpj ir roX^ixX roO. AeureUocs apparently no mis-
take, for Hesychius has Ad^-OF' r^ Kdpicay, 6y6Xa»=.dydl\tafta.
yunkirci from yl-yv-fxai^ylyyofxai in meaning.

538 APPENDIX B

2. Lesbian and Aeouc of Asia Minor

624. None of the inacriptions are very old, the earliest of
any length the dates of which can be ascertained belonging to
the banning of the fourth century B.a Both inscriptionB given
here probably belong to the end of the third century B.C.

i. The two most marked charaoteristics of genuine Aeolic
are (a) /3a/>vr6ri^ris and (6) ^^Xowit. Unlike other Greek dialects
Aeolic throws back the accent in all words (except prepositions
and conjunctions) as far from the last syllable as it will go.
Hence a£b-oia't, 7pot (see § 886 n. 8), ^tcUi^o'cu, 0X170$, rerdyfiewat, etc.,
every word being baiytone, for the long monosyllables ozytone in
other dialects are here circumflezed : ZcCt, rrw^, etc. The second
point— ^iXftwtf — is the total loss of the spirUus asper, a loss which,
however, is equally certain for the Ionic of Asia Minor.

(e) The Digamma is not found in inscriptions after the
adoption of the Ionic alphabet. It seems, however, to have dis-
appeared early in the middle of words but had, to judge from the
grammarians, survived initially, F appearing as p: j9pd4cea= Attic
^dxri, /3/)fj'a=/Uj^^ etc. When a consonant followed, f passed into
a diphthong with the previous vowel : 9ei;w= Attic d^M (= *dc^-i#),

(d) The grammarians tell us that t was written 0-^ in
Lesbian, a statement which is not borne out by inscriptions, and
which seems to point only to the fact that the Lesbian like the
classical Attic pronunciation of ^ (§ 118) was different from its
later value represented by-S9- in Latin transliterations : aUieino, etc.

(e) Nasals and liquids are doubled when another consonant
<r, j^ f is assimilated: fficpi^a, (yififta, IrrcXXa, x^Pfi^* *' hands"
{ = *X^p(r-), but (fxrep; fpAevvot, afifus, x^^^oi (cp. Attic x^^^o*) :
Kplvva^ dyaTTAXw, x^PP^^ ( = *X^P4«»' "worse"); ^ivpot, -rippara
(Hom. ir€lpaTa = 'pF-),

(/) The later assimilation of final -ps and non-original
'PS' produces in the preceding syllable a pseudo-diphthong : cu, ec,
oi: Ttt2j 7pd0cuf (ace pi.), els prep, very frequent ( = *^r-f), &€cls
(ace pL); nom. masc. of participles = -nta: diroi^ots, Mx^^ts,

[OatUinued an p, 640.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 539

(1) Decree of Mytilene :

Ilepl Snf ol erp&rayoi TparlOeuri Tpoara^alo'as r(a)f [p6\'}
[-X]af Kal ol irpia^vs ol dwoffrdXan-es tit AlTu{\lap]
[djvaTTAXoM'c kcU d6yfM ^rcjcor wap rw Kobna A/r[(i»Xwf ]
[T]e/>1 rat o/iny(^arof koX t&s ^cXias, <&t xe 9ia^[(iNr(]
(e)if t6i' irdrra XP^"^ ««i Atl>^*« /*^« A/ti6X«i' M^re]
[T]ci»r jraroiin^rrwi' ^y A^royMcu fi-fdewa MvrcXipdwy ^[717]
/ATlSd/ioOev dpftdfuyos fiijrre jcar' dpp^wf fiijfre irpbt ['A/i>]
[•^ijrrvdrtiroi' /ii^e irpdt dXXo fyKKrifui fiijdep' 848oxOai rw dd-
[•^]w iwalpTfirai rb koipop tQv AlniXfap xal rols wpo48poLt ica[2]
(n)ayraX^orra r6r arpSrayoPi Uri cifvbtat fx*^<^'' ^P^ '''^{y)
Sdfiop rhp 'M.vTiKifpdtoPf xal iwifUXecdai afhtap rdp p6\'
-\cLP Kal rbp SdfMP teal rals Apxais del rait KadurrafUpais
(at a re ipOda xal d olmfi&rat 4 irdpxoiffcL Tp6t AlTcSXott
8ia/i€Pci elt rhp wdrra xphvoPy koX aX k4 rtpot dei^vrai ir(a)[p]
rat irdXiof, <ht (ffTcu aihoiffi wdpra tit rh Sdporop' iiraXp{ri-)
•<rai di Kol rolt vp^^/Seis Effpofiop Oriplaop, MeTJiaftop 'A(/9)[di'-]
-THOP Kal trrt^djuaaai adroit ip roit Aiopvo'louri XP*^^]
ereip^Pia Kar* 6p6fiaTot, Uri t&p re 9ra[X]£ray ripat tup i^Sp-]
{-t)up 4p UekoTOPdffu iXurpiiffaPTo Kal e7rpaff{ir)op, hrl rd

aw-]

-ir€fi^€Pt wpoO^fuat. T6 di r/^d^fia toOto Kal rb trap

klT(t)\i^p'\

(y)pd\paPTat Tol{t) i^rrdarait e/(f) ardXXay ddfupai clt rd tp<i[p]
Tu) *A<rK\aTUiff rhp Si rafdop t6p ^tI rat SioiKio'iot S6fie-
'POi aih-ourif rh re di^dXcMrar fit rolt alx}uiKu>TOit Kal tit 7p[a]
bpdxjMAt rpiaKOffUut 'AXe^opSpelaitf rd 8i dpdXtafUL Todrlo}
[^]/i|ieycu €lt vdXtot aurrfplap, *Erfpa\f^e ^aeerat Ed<rdfteio{t).

Hoffmann's text (vol. ii. p. 61).

540 APPENDIX B

Crffois ( = -O'PTs) ; 'ntt{i) : ^HUffi ( = 0aa'O, TporlOtitri, fx"^^^ ypd^ttwi
(sabj.). Taura ( = *9rai^j^), /bUMira (Attic fioOira), and in the fern, of
participles : yeXaUras, ^dpxotca, etc

{g) 0 has close relations with a and v: 6v=Atfd (ao too
Thessalian), irrp^os=<rTpaT^ and in a few other words (cpw
Boeotian), bat dTv (as in Arcadian and elsewhere), 6wvfia {Smofia\
but wpirravii (= Attic TrpOravii).

ii. (o) The ** contracting " verbs appear as verbs in -au : •yvXius
" thou smilest/' jcefXi^/u, (rre^ctvoy/u. In all three Aeolic dialects
intermediate forms between the -/u and -w inflexion appear in the
types -17(1;, -ciKii, which occur also in Phocian.

ijb) The perfect participle is declined like the present (cp.
Homeric K€K\irtopr€i)'. irerpeffpei^Kiav. This is true also of Thesaalian
and Boeotian.

(c) The 3rd person plural of the imperative in both active
and middle has a short vowel: ^poprov, hriiUktvBof. Of this
peculiarity there is no satisfactory explanation.

{d) €<m and iffvi (possibly a miswriting of iari) are used aa
the 3rd plural of (fi/u,

3. Boeotian

625. While Boeotian offers great resistance to loss of f ,
it has modified its vowel system more than any other Greek
dialect. The Boeotian method of representing its sounds
after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet enables the pro-
nunciation to be accurately ascertained.

i. (a) V remained u and did not as in Attic change to 5.
Hence on the introduction of the Ionic alphabet the pure v-sound
had to be represented as in French by ou (ov). u seems, as in
English, to have developed after dental stops, X and i', a y (}) aoond
before it, for otherwise it is difficult to explain such forms as
Ttoj/xa {r^X"!)} Tio\ioi'^€»os (IIoXu-)*

{b) The sound i (17) was pronounced very dose and is repre-
sented in the Ionic alphabet by ei : Tarelp, fuirt, dye^eue.

(c) The diphthong eu is written at Tanagra ae (cp. Latin),
elsewhere 17, whence ultimately cc {%.e, close e ) : kirxfifbm^us,
Avffavlae ( = 04) ; «fij, 'H<rxoi;XoT (A^xiJXos) ; Gci/Sctbr.

[Continued on p. 542.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 541

(2) From Methymna :
BoiriXci^orrof IlroXc/uUw rw | IlroXe/MUcii kqX BepevUcas 04iap \

Upwitav ' I ^reiW; Ilpa^firXi^t $(X/y(ii defx^'tf | Xf^'?<"'«'^PX«* ^*»'
iraurav iTi\fU\€UUf iTM-ffcaTO, 6ir<as jce rots 0[^]|oc0't rots warpcdt-
onTL at d^ioL ffi^¥]\T€\40'd€tep KoX d x^^W^ I 4p TcUaa ylvjirai
iTi/uXeia koII] \ ek ravra irdrra 4k tuw ISUap ixo\pdyiice
d^lun TWK d4<ap koX tSls | x'^^i^vo* * ^Td^a r^x* 4}ffdif>urdat • |
^6< K6 0-ui'TeX^ d x^^W^^ I ^0^' ^^oc<r( rd Zpo, d<dwy aih-ca
ira2 I 4Ky6poun [Sifioiplay koX vdpKa irerrd\/ipaiop dirfi) rw ^]6of
TW 0vofi4v<a tQ I A2 to; Z€&[Ti;pc], ius k€ l^tinaaif koX d»a\Kap\nrcriv
aih-oii, &ri d x^^V<^^ I (rre^dyoe IIpo^^xXi;!' ^tXii^u; Kal ^ir76-|
yois 8i/iMpla jccU o-dpin ^oe^a T€VTa\[jjL]palw frvvT€k4cffCLvra rd
7pa rocs | $4oiffi kot r6r ir^^coi^ xal ras x^^|M^^i^<^ ^Ti/ieXi^^fi^ra

d^fwy

Hoffmann, ii. p. 73 ; D.L No. 276.

From Orchomenns.

"ApxovTOt 4p *Epxofi€Pv Qwdpxu fiei\p^ *AXttX«fO|i€i'£w, 4p 84
FeXarlri Mcjirotrao 'A/)X€Xdw fuipbs Tpdrta, 6fio\\oy[i}a. Ei}j3(6Xu
feXart^t; k^ rrj ir6\i '"Bplxofuytuv * 4rt8€l K€K6/uarri E(^/9<ii||Xos
rdp T&s t6}uo5 t6 ddptiop Atop \ xdr rdf dfioKoyias rd; reOeUras
Ovlpdpx^Jif dpxoPTOS fji€ipbt OciXovdlw, \ k^ oih* d^CKervi adrO fri
oifBkp wdp rdp I t6}up, dXX' dir^t Tdrra T€pl TOPrbs \\ k^ diro-
8€86apdi TTj ir6Xi n> ^orret | rds 6^Xo7<as, eZ^cv irorc9edo/Li^|voir
Xpbpop Eipib\v 4riP0fdas F4Tia | w^rrapa j3oi/e(r<rc o-oi^v firiri/s
duura'iWi^f FUan, wpopdrvt aoifp Ijryvs x^^li^^^' * ^PX^ "^^ XP^^^
6 4putvT6s 6 fJLerd | 06papxop dpxopra 'Epxofuplvs. *Airo\ypd'
^ffBti 84 ECpvXop jcdr 4ptavTbp \ 4Ka<rrop vdp rbp rafdop k^ rbp
pofJuifWop rd re Kai/^tara tQv Tpopdrtap icii \\ top -fiyQp k^ top
povQp K^ TOP tmrtap icfj \ xd ripa daa/ia liapOi k^ rb ir\€i6ot'
fjLel I dToypwp4ff6<a 84 T\Lopa tup y€ypafi\ft4pup 4p rrj coirfxta-
pelffi. 'H 84 Kd TCf [iripdrretjn; rb 4ppbfuop EOptaXoPf 6^i\4t\[w
d 9r6]Xis rwy 'EpxofitpUap dpyovplta \ [/uFat] werrapdKOPra E^p<i>\v
Ka6* ^jccurlroy 4piavrbp k^ tAkop ^p4T(a d/)a[xAcdf | 8o^] rcif ftpas

[Continued on p. 543.

642 APPENDIX B

(cQ Similarly w, beoomes first oe and about the end of the
3rd oentury b.c. passes into v (<() ; Ko^pavof, Atoy(^oe (=ot) ; Xvvd
(sXmvd), fvWas (=ok(at), rut j9oc{in-0t (oi preserved in root syllable
but changed in suffix).

(e) The diphthong et becomes I: Kifiipas {=^K€ifiipas)f rlai
{=T€lff€i ** shall pay "), ifl (=del), e in most districts beoomes Tciy
close ; hence $t&s for ^e6t.

(/) f is represented by d initially, by 88 medially : &ke
{ = ^<ai subj.), ypafifMrlSdoPTOi.

ig) As in Attic, -rr- appears where Ionic has -aa- : wirrapa,
Attic T^TTOpa. Boeotian however has 'Tt- where Attic has -«■- in
6w6TTa {=^6ira\ etc.

ii. As in Thessalian -pO- appears instead of -rr- in vexi)
suffixes; Tapayu^6<ay0rf {^TapaylytnayTai)^ 8a/w&i'0ia ( = ^fuo^yTwr
3rd pi. imperat. from jyifu6u) with the final r absent as freqaently
in Doric inscriptions ; dToSeSdwdt (perfect).

626. The three dialects agree in the following respectsB :

(a) Instead of giving the father's name in the genitive as
in Attic official designations (Ai^/Aoo-^^n/t Aiifu>ff$^ifous, etc), they
frequently make an adjective from the father's name, except when
it ends in -8as ; hence yLyaatyepeios but AioffKoplSao ; but in Thes-
salian *E.p€LK\cl8aios, etc.

(5) The perfect participle ends in -on^.

(c) In the consonant stems, the dative plural ends in

Thb Dialects of North- West Greece

627. Here may be distinguished (1) Locrian, (2) Phocian
including the dialect of Delphi, and (3) the dialect of Acar-
nania, of the Aenianes, of Aetolia, Epirus, and Phthiotis.

628. The following points are characteristic of all three
groups :

(a) The consonant stems make their dat. plural in -ott on
the analogy of -o- stems : dytiivois, tuhhs ( = rial), dpx^*^<Kf, pucedtrrois
(verb in -ita not -dw), iriots Terrdpott. Such datives are foimd

[CorUinued on p. 544.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 643

kt(6jrra,i icard iiM»sk \ [^jco^-Jroy, i^ ifATpaicrot irrta E^pdfXv \\ d

Cauer,« No. 298 ; D.L No. 489 a
liyw^atyoiSf Attic ai^l ''goats." Uav$i=:i<i»Ti, Attic c&<ri.

From Tanagra.

"NikIoo dpxorrot /uu^bs *AXa\KOfi£vlw ?ic[ttj] dvi^i^rof, | iire-
y/^d^iSde Eiicrelfiup, Qi6iro/iiros Eiv6fjua Ae^e, de|6dx^ ru 8d/iv
TfH^ivias etfiep xij edepyfras ras t6\ios \ ToMayprfyav ^iKoKpdriffp
ZtatXia, OjjpafUviiP AafMTplia, \\ *Airo\\o4»dtnjp *A$<ufi>8&ria 'Avrio-
Xetof TWP irbS Ad^n;, a^dt \ k^i iaydptas, k^ etfuv a^Os 7dj rJ;
FvKlas (mroffiv icii | FiaoriTuap idi dff^\MP Kif dffovXlop k^
ToXi/ua I icii Ipdvas Itaaas k^ «card 701^ k^ /card ^dXarrap, k^
rd I dXXa Tdrra KaSdirep rvs dXKvt irpo^ipvt jcf^ eiepyiWrrp.

Cauer,' No. 870 ; DJ, No. 962.

9r6d Ad0i^ = ir6r A-. iinrairuf=ifi', Itlxras Attic o&n/f.

Locrian inscription from Nanpactus (last part).

Z. I Toi>f iriFol^ovs ip Nat^curroy rdv dfirav Tp68i9op hapitr-
rai Tbrods d|iircurre/KU, kapiffrat koI hbfup ip *0ir6€PTi xard
F4{t)os ainattapbp, Ao9|poy top JffvxoKPafudlop Tpwrrdrop Kara-
trraacu, top Ao9pop T6in,F\\oi9g kolL top hriFol^op t§ Ao?pp, hoiTip4s
Ka 'fTiaT€ff€PTifUK€ff'f. — H. ffoffff\Tis «f* dwoXlxf Tordpa kclL rd
fUpos TOP xP^t*^"*"^ ^P *^^/^> * ^^^ '^' I dToyipeTox, i^ifxtp
diroXaxeiP top irlFoi^op ip Na&raicTOP, \ — 6. Hofftms jca rd
FeFa8(96Ta Siwpdeipf r^i^ xal fiaxftpq, Ka\l yuu^j 8ti xa fti
' dpipordpoit doKie, fforoPTlop re x^^^^ tX^^H^ xal NaFTOJCTlop
TOP iriFol^op TXiiB^, drifiop etfiep koI xp^|/iara TafULTo^yeiffrcu.
TdPKoXei/jJpf Tdp SIkop 86fiep Tbp dp\xf», ip Tpid9opr* dftdpui
86/uPf at Ka rp(d?orr' d/idpai XelroPT\ai Tas dpxdr at Ka fjuk Mq
T§ ipKoXeifUpf Tdp Ukop, dTifi\op elficp Kal xP^fULTa ira^iaro^a-
y€urr<u. T6 fiipoi /terd FoWikultop Biofidaai hop^op Thv p6/uop •

[Coniinued on p. 545.

544 APPENDIX B

also in Elean, Arcadian, and Boeotian. Phocian and the Ijocrian
of Opus share with the Aeolic dialects a form in -^coi : Ke^oA-

(6) The participles of verbs in -ita have the suffix -tfAe^ot not
-6fieyoi in the present middle: KoKelfUPos. Compare the Attic
substantive t6 p^XefiPoif {=^\6fupoy),

(c) The preposition iv is used with the accusative as well as
with the dative (locative) : ^i' J^aOwaicrop, iv t6 Uphnf, h t6 iBwvs.
This usage is, however, common to many other dialects.

1. LOCRIAN

629. In the district of the Ozolian Locrians there have
been found two long inscriptionfi, one a law passed by the
Opuntian Locrians to regulate the relations between their
colonists about to settle at Naupactus and their native state,
the other a treaty between Oeanthea and Chaleion. Both
belong to the fifth century B.C. but there is nothing to fix the
precise date. Canon Hicks {Manual of Greek Historical Inscrip-
tions, No. 63) places the former doubtfully in 403 B.a, after
the Athenians had been expelled from Naupactus^ Most
authorities^ however, place it in the first part of the fifth
century. The characteristics of the older dialect in which
these inscriptions are written are as follows :

i. (a) Change of e into a before p : rardpa ( = «-aW/ia>,
dfJMpay ( = iifiep&y) ; compare the English Derby, aergeaiU.

(6) Arbitrary use of the spirUns asper : 6, i (^), but haytw
{=dy€iy).

(c) -ffd- is represented by -or- : xf^arai (=x/>^^«*)i A<X^oTr«
( = iXiffdia), This characteristic is found also in Boeotian, Thessa-
lian, Phocian, Elean, and Messenian.

{d) Frequent occurrence of koppa (?) and f : ^«-ifo£9or,
fefad€?6ra (fi:om dvSdpu), F&rt, h6p9op. F&ri is regarded by some
as a mistake for Eori = ^ 5ri.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 545

h idplop rdv r/^d^H^^iP ctfieif, Kal t6 OiSfuw TcXt HvwoKwa-
fudloit Ao9pOiS rai/|ra riXeop ttfiey XaXeUois rois ff^ *Ayri^r^
FoiKerais.

Cauer," No. 229 ; D.L No. 1478.

There is no distinction between long and short e and o sounds.
The rough breathing is still written with H. In line 5 the letters
marked with t are read by Meister (BerichU d. Sachs. O, d, Wiss.
1895, p. 313) as irfarcf irrtfAoi i[^u>vTi\. M. supposes that rfaret is a
Locrian name for "nobles."

The general drift is as follows : The colonists in Naupactus
(if they have an action at law with an Opuntian) are to bring
the case before the home courts within a year of the offence
and have the right to a hearing before other cases {wp6Bi<fov).
The magistrates for the year (so Hicks interprets the doubtful
letters) are to appoint irpocrTdrai in the respective countries,
an Opuntian for a colonist and vice versa. A colonist in N.
who leaves his father behind in Opus shall be entitled to his
share of the property on the death of his father. Any one
destroying these placita unless with the consent of both
parties shall be disfranchised and his property confiscated
(cp. the Zulu phrase for the same thing " to be eaten up ").
A magistrate, unless his office expires within 30 days, must
give a hearing to an accusing party, or suffer the same penal-
ties. The party (rh /JLcpos) ? ^ is to swear with imprecations on
himself and his household that he speaks the truth. The
vote is to be by ballot The same regulations are to hold for
the colonists from Chaleion with Antiphates.

^ Meister {loc. cU. p. 325) follows G. Gilbert in explaining fiifws
as the portion of land (jcX^pos ) granted by the State, and translates
'^ his property shall be confiscated, his holding and his household
slaves ; they shall swear the lawful oath." In line 3 M. keeps
F4os, and interprets as a Doric gen. of the personal pronoun, *'So
far as in him lies," i.e. shall do his best to have the suit decided
on the same day.

2 N

646 APPENDIX B

2. Phocian including Delphian

630. The majority of the inscriptions are records at
Delphi of the enfranchisement of slaves. Several thousand
additional inscriptions, many of more general interest^ have
been found in the recent French excavations at Delphi
(see B,C.H, passim).

ii (a) The genitive sing, in -o- stems is in -ov, the aoc plnr.
in 'ovs. FolK(a=otKo0€i' represents the old abl. (§ 310 n.).

{b) The nom. plural is used for the aoc. in one of the oldest
Delphian inscriptions in the form BcKariropts (/jo^as), a peculiarity
also found in Elean and Achaean.

(c) Verbs in -i}w and -<au : ffvMfotrret, dTaWorpuaoltf^ fMori-

3. Aetollan, etc.

631. When the Aetolian league became of importance in
the third century Rc. it apparently established an official
language, which at first was intended for the koivij but
gradually relapsed into the local speech. F has disappeared,
but consonant stems continue to make the dative plural in
-ots.

632. Closely connected with the dialects of North-West
Greece are the dialects of Achaea and Elis in the Peloponneee.
According to Herodotus viii. 73 the Achaeans belonged to
the same original stock as the Arcadians, but had been driven
from their original abodes by Dorians. Elis he holds for
Aetolian. Whatever the ethnological origin of the inhabitants
of Achaea, its dialect undoubtedly belongs to the North- West
group. It seems likely that, as in the case of Aetolia, the
rise of the Achaean league in the third century &a led to the
formation of an official style somewhat different from the
spoken dialect. It has no special characteristics ; the moet
noticeable point — the use of the nom. plural of consonant
stems instead of the ace. — it shares with Delphian (and
Phthiotic) and Elean.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 547

From Delphi. Date not later than 400 b.c. Oath of a

president (rayos) of the Labyad Phratry on admiasion to

office. B. and h represent Q in the original

. . . . ] ^tf-TW. rQrf^v\ciia di[«ccUciis «r]|ar& roiw p6fJL0vs roj W6[Xt]|of

Kal Toi>s tQv Aa/3vad[ai'] | irkp rCtv direXXa/ow koX Ta\v daparay * Kal

rd xP^MO'^'a I avfiTpa^ita xdirodei^ia [d|i]icoU(tfS Tcis Aa^vdScus [«r]|o(b-e

/cXf^^a; oihe [j3]Xa[^] 4u | o(h-e r^vai o^e/iaxav[d|(] twi' twX Aa/Svadav

X/i>i7Ai[(i]r(i;i' «rai tAj Ta7oiJ[* ^»']«i^^|« Tdy hhpKov toi>[s ^v v^Jwrja /cdr rh.

yeypa/ifUifo. — H6pK\os' Hv7rl<rxoitaj. ircl tov A(|6s tov irarpdHov

€vopK4o\vTi fiifi fUH 9r6XX' dydd\ eU d* \ iiptopKioifUf [86fiXP^ rd «ca|icd dvrl

Twv dyadCay.

Burial regulations (part of the same inscription).
H68* 6 reBfibs Tip tu\v ivroipTfltay. fi^ ir\4ov T4y\Te xal rptdKOvro,
5/)axAi[a]|i' ivBifuv firfire T/xd/t4£i'o|[i'] fiirre FoUaa, rar Bi irax»|[a]y
X^CLivay ffHJLtariaf el/icv. \ ad hi n ro&nav irappd\Ko\iTO, diro76i<rdrw
trevn^Kolvra dpaxM-^ft oX Ka ii^ ^^o/iA|6<n}i ijcl rCk adpuari /jl^ t\\4op
ivOifiev, oTpwfia 8i ?ti\y Aviro/SaX^w Kal 7rouc€<p\d\cuov hkv TorOirta,
rhv B\k p€Kpdv K€Ka\vfifUpw ^\€p4T<i) ffiySU, ic^y raU <rrp\o4pais fiii
KamdivTtay fAri\[8]nfieif firid* droTv^dpTutp ^|[x]^^s fSLs fot/cfoj, wply k*
i\irl t6 vafJM hUctayTi. Trjyci \ 8* iy Atos itrrUf hivT€ Ka Aa|[o]( ySn
dirarrdediji, tQv 54 v\p6cTa TtOvaK&rtay iv rois \ ffafidreffffi fi^ Bprjyeiy
firjlS' droTv^ep, dXX' dwifiep Fo\iKa8€ {F)4KacrToy 4%^^ hofic\(irrliav koX
TarpadeX^Qy \ Kod ireyOepiay K^ffyhvuv [«r]|al yafi^pQw. firf84 toi
7iu<r[T]|e/)aia(i), firfd* 4v tcuj de«rdr[a]|», /xiyS' 4v tw 4viavTw[s \ fi}/ir*
olfub^cy fii/JT* &roTJ^^e\y]. k.t.X.

D,L No. 2661 ; Dittenberger,^ iL pp. 25 flf.

direKKaJiwy are victims offered at the dTreXXou, a midsummer
festival; daparay, cakes of unleavened bread. FdKia{ = <JiKod€y), The
shroud (xXcui'a) is to be of thick white material. (rrpoipaU perhaps
best taken with Baunack (D,I. Dote) as at the changing of the
bearers when one set were tired, rather than with Eeil and
Dittenberger as the comers of the streets, or with Homolle
{B.C.H. 1895) as during the alternate chants. 4y drot and what
follows to 7CU is doubtful. Baunack explains *'let there be
lamentation to the full till he be buried at sunrise." Blass and D.
read firiSiy dyos ftrru * * let it be no sin. " D. reads TOTd407ii preceded
by a lacona and the letters dva, ipiavrois ''anniversaries/' ap-
parently the original meaning of the word.

648 APPENDIX B

Elis

633. The dialect of Elis, frequently treated as entirely
isolated, owes its peculiar characteristics to the mixed nature
of its population and to the fact that, with a lai^ element
of the dialect more purely represented by Arcadian and
Cyprian, ingredients from the Doric of the North-West as well
as from the Doric of the Peloponnese have been intermingled.
The dialect is not uniform throughout Elis.

i. (a) Original g- sounds whether (1) short or (2) long were
pronounced very open in Elean. * was represented by a not
merely before p as in Locrian, but also sporadically in other
positions ; e appears as a : (1) FAprfov, 4>d,fniv {^peip), vKtvdm
{=(rK€vitji39)f dTiriPOuw, cbva^oi ( = eOtf-ejSo^i;) ; (2) fpdr/xi ( = ^pa),
irXa^iJoi'Ta, xf^^^ ( = X/>zffo*)i /ScuriXaei, ^Karcu, fio^eu ( = 5o^), ^a

{h) 8 even at the date of the earliest inscriptions seems to
have become a spirant (d) which is generally represented by ^
though S is sometimes retained: Fei^dn (=e/dc&s), t^ata, ^ko,
^fMv {=:87jfioy). On the other hand the primitive Greek sound
represented in Attic by ^ appears in Elean as in Boeotian and
various Doric dialects as d : 9tKdBoi (d(«:di*ot), etc

(c) Final s becomes p. The intermediate stage was no doubt
the inevitable voicing of final s before a following voiced consonant
Thus Tois 84 must be pronounced toizde. The change of final -$
to -p is found in other dialects as Laconian (Dorian). After the
pronunciation changed, -s was still occasionally written : roTp
FdKclois,

(d) Medial s between vowels disappears: iwotija {=iTrolyiira).
But this change though occurring also in other dialects is found
in Elean only in the -s aorist and there but rarely.

{e) 6 was apparently no longer C but p (§ 75), hence
•rtyfyiirffai arises out of voii^cur^ai.

(/) Compensatory lengthening in the aoc. plural of -o> and
-d-stems is sometimes found in -on and -a» as in Aeolio. It is
possible that here there is a confusion between dat. and aoa

[C<yniin%ied on, p. 550.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 649

From Olympia. Date earlier than 580 b. a

'A FpiLTfta. Tois Fdkelois. IlarpidK Oappiif xal ycvetp koX rairro, | al
j;4 Tis Kariapaiiffcit Fdppevop FdXelo, Al ^i fUiriOeTay rd ^[KOia 6p
fiiyiffTov t4\os ^Oi Kal toI pturiKaeSf iV«ro /XFatt xa | diroTlyot FiKOffTOS
Tw fUwiToedyTOP Ka{T)6&rais roT Zl *0\vy\\irloi, *BWi»iroi ^4 k
AXavo^icas, Kal rSXKa j^Ucaia iir€Vir\4T0 d j^afuopyla' al fi^ fiiyiroi,
^vioy diroTipiTO ip fiMrrpdlat. Al ^{4] ret rdv alriadipra i^ixalop
IfidffKM, ip Tou ^€Ka/ipalai k ^|vexo[cT]o, aX Fei^hi IfidffKot' Kal irar/uas
6 7po0€i>f raO[T]d Ka TdvKOi. \ [T]vi V [al€]l k* (oi 6 w^^ 'A/>^f
'OXvpirlai.

It is thus transcribed into Attic by Cauer (p. 176, 2nd ed.).

'H /tiiTpa Tois 'HXc/otf. ^parplap dapptip Kal yepedjf Kal tA ai&ToG,
I el 5i/f Tis Ka$i€pe^€iep Appepos 'HXefov. EZ 84 fi^ 4ri6€i€P rd di\Kaia
&i fUyiffrop t4\os ^m koI ol /Sao-cX^s, 84Ka fUfas tp { dtrorrlpw. ^Katrrot
tQp fiif 4Trtiroio(tPTiap KaraB&rovi rtp Lit (t^) 'OXv^Utt^. Mi/yi/ot 5*
dLP 6 ^XXavodfriTf, koI rd dXXa biKoia it.7iPv\4Tia ii Srifuovpyia' el 84
pA\ fitfpi/ot, 8iir\ovp dT0Tip4Tut 4p e^9(^y|aif. E^ 84 m rhp 8iKal<ap
alTtad4pTa Ifjuiairoif 4p ry 8€KafLPalqi (r>7M^) ^ 4\p4xoiTOf el €i8u)S
Ifidffffoi' Kal fpparplas 6 ypa^ds ra^rd Slp Td(rx,oi, \ TfSe els del Ay
etrj 6 irlpo^ iap6s {4p) 'OXvfiirl^

The meaning of many parts is doubtful, and even the
general drift of the whole is uncertain. Blass (D.I. No. 1152)
gives as a possible interpretation the conjecture that the
inscription is a guarantee of security for Patrias a ypafi/mrcvs.
The forms cTreviroi, cTrevTrero, cvttoi are interpreted in many
ways. They seem to have to do with the infliction of a fine ;
Biicheler compares Latin inquit ; Brugmann {Grundr. ii.
§ 737) assumes a verb *7rd-4(a "exact" ( = *k^a-id).

650 APPENDIX B

iL (a) The nom. plural of consonant stems is used for the
accusative, as in Delphian and Achaean : irXe<ove/>, x^P*^^?-

(6) Similarly the consonant stems form the dat plural in -m :
•X^pjiroi%^ dy(i>»oip. Similar forms are found (on one inscription)
for the gen. and dat. dual: ^roBvyiolois (=^o^t<Mr but text
doubtful), ainoloip {^airrciiv), -on being added to the dual suffix.

Doric

634. The Doric dialects occupy all the Peloponnese (ex-
cept Arcadia, Elis, and Achaia), and some of the islands, as
Melos and Thera, Cos, Rhodes in the Aegean. The longest
Greek inscription in existence is in the Doric dialect of
Gortyn in Crete. Doric is also represented in many colonies ;
Cyrene from Thera (while Thera according to the legend
was colonised from Laconia) ; Corcyra, Syracuse, and its
offshoots from Corinth ; Tarentum and Heraclea, its offshoot,
from Laconia ; Megara Hyblaea and Selinus, its offshoot,
from Megara ; Gela and Agrigentum from Rhodes.

The literary records are, as we have already seen, untrust-
worthy for the dialect. The Doric in the choruses of Attic
tragedy is purely conventional, and consists mostly in keeping
original d instead of changing it as usually in Attic to ?;.

635. Some characteristics are universal throughout Doric :
(L) the 1st pers. plural of the active ends in -/les ; (ii.) the
suffixes of the active are used for the future passive (§ 492) ;
(iii.) according to the grammarians Doric had a system of
accentuation different from either Attic or Aeolic. The
chief variations in accent seem to have been, (a) that mono-
syllables were accented with the acute where Attic had a
circumflex, (6) that final -at, -ot, were treated as long
syllables, (c) that the 3rd pers. plural of active preterite tenses
was accented on the penultimate, probably by analogy from
other persons : thus eXwaftcv, kXvcrar^^ cA-ixrav, with the
accent throughout on the same syllable, {d) that in a number
of cases analogy maintained an acute where Attic had a
circumflex : iratScs, ywai/ccs, icaA-ws (adverb, cp. icaAds),
while in others analogy brings in the final circumflex where
Attic keeps .an acute on an earlier syllable : TratScuv, iravrC^y.
But our information, even if correct, is too incomplete to

[Continued onp, 552.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 561

From Olympia. Date about 600 B.c.

'A Fpdrpa roTp FaXelois kolL rott Et\Faoiois. ^vtffxaxicL k e(f)a
Uarhv Firea^ \ apxoi 84 xa rot. Al 54 rt 84oi aire Fiwos atre
FldpyoPy ffvp€{t)dv k* d\{\)d\ois rd r* aX(Xa) icai ird\\p ToXifio-
al Si fid ffW€{T)ay, rdXarrdv k \ dpy{fpo dvorlpoiay rot Al *0\vPirloi
Tol Ka\\{8)8a\4fjL€voi XarpeiSfiepop. Al 84 rip rd y\pd4>€a toX
Ka{8)8a\4otTO ofre F4Tas aXre rlcXeflrrA atre Safi4>Sf 4v riiridpoi k
ip4j(\\otro TO? ^vravr' 4ypafJi(fi)4voi,

It is thus transcribed into Attic by Cauer (p. 179,
2nd ed.).

'H /rfiTpa TO(f 'HXe^oif koX rots E6\a(fiois. Zvfifjuixla &v etrf 4KaT6v
4t% I dpxoi 8' &v t68€. £^ 84 n 84w, efre hroi efre | 4pyov, awtiev
dv dXXi^Xotj rd t' dXXa koX ircHpi TroKffjLov' el 8i fiij aweicVf rdXavrou
&y I dpyCpov dtrorivoiev ri} Aii (r^) 'OXu/xir^y ol KaTa\8ri\o6fi€PM,
Xarpevdfievop, El 84 tis rd '^pdfAfiaTa rdSe KaTa8rj\oiTo errc frrfi
etre T\e\«rr^ etre Srjfunf 4» rj 4irapq. d» 4v4x\\oiro ry 4vTav$a
ycypafifUptfi (read rj yeypafifiipjl).

The name of the people who make the treaty with the
Eleans is not certain. Blass (D,L vol i. p. 336) would read
* HpatpoK " inhabitants of Heraia." The final -s of TcAccrrd is
probably omitted by mistake. In the last line Blass reads
TO? ra-vrr) (y€)y/)a(/i)/z€voi. ,

562 APPENDIX B

permit of this method of accentuation being carried out
systematically. Most modem authorities therefore follow
tie Attic system even for Doric inscriptions.

636. The division of Doric adopted by Ahrens into a
diaXtdui teveri/yr and a diaUctus mitis turns (1) on the con-
traction of o + o and € + € into co and rj respectively in the
former and ov and ei in the latter, and (2) on the compensatorr
lengthening in co, 17, or ov, et. But this distinction is not
geographical, as Ahrens held, but chronological ; the older
inscriptions showing the severer forms, the later inscriptiom
of the same dialects when influenced by the koiviq the milder.

1. Laconia

637. Besides inscriptions we have for Laconian the frag-
ments of Alcman, the treaty in Thucydides, v. 77 and the
Laconian in Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 1076 ff., as well as a
considerable number of glosses. These sources however, as
in other cases, are untrustworthy.

i. (a) In the earliest inscriptions intervocalic -0-- appears as
in other Greek dialects, but in the period between 450 and 400
according to Boisacq it changes into h» The inscriptions with
medial -c- are, however, doubtfully attributed to Laconia.

(b) The change of the aspirate $ into a spirant frequently
represented by <r, but probably having the value of >, belongs to a
later period if we may trust the inscriptions. If this characteristic
is late it must be to the copyists that we owe rw nu aj^fiarot (=rov
0€ov d^fMTos) in Thucydides, v. 77, and the same change in Alcman
and Aristophanes' Lysistraia.

(c) The -f"- of Attic is represented by -89- : yvfipdddofuu.

(d) From Hesychius we may gather that Laconian like
Boeotian had preserved v = u: l^fi(rywv€p ( = [v^ywi'cy). This word
shows the rhotacism which later Laconian shares with Elean.
Many of the late Laconian inscriptions are not to be trusted to
give the genuine forms of the dialect, for under the Romans an
archaising tendency set in. Foreign influence is shown still
earlier by the substitution of -fuv for -jues as the ending of the
1st pers. plural, by the contraction of o-f-a into w not a: old
Laconian irpaTos = irpun-os ; and by other changes towards Attic
fonns.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 553

From Tegea. Date earlier than that of the following docu-
ment Ficks holds it to be not Laconian but Achaean ;
it probably refers to one of the Perioeci, not to a
Spartiate.

SovOlif. TapKa{0)OiKa t§ ^cXaxajfo r*cr/oa«:aT(ai fjufox dpyvplo, E^
M.\4v Ka ^6e, ai>r6f dpe\4ff6o, cU 64 /cla /x^ ^6e, rol {*)vi6l dveXdffOo rot
yv€\\<rloif ixei Ka C)epd<roPTi xivre f^rcja* el Si Ka fik foirt, roi
6vyar4p€i \ WveXdaBo ral yvefflai- el 54 xa fi4 \ f[o]i^t, rot v6Boi
dife\6<rBo ' el 84 Ka \ pii vbdw. fivri, rol Affffiara ToOUWei dpe\6ff0o •
el 84 k' dp^\4yayr\{i, r)ol Teyedroi Siayv^ro Kh{r) rby OeOfibv.

Cauer,2No. 10 b; DJ. No. 4698.

The general drift of the above is as follows. X. a Spartan
had deposited in the temple of Athene 400 minae of silver,
which if he lives he may recover. Failing him his legitimate
sons may recover it five years after they reach puberty, whom
failing the legitimate daughters, whom failing the iUegitimate
sons, whom failing the next of kin. Arbitration in case of
dispute is left to the people of Tegea.

Dedication by Damonon (about 400 B.c.) in gratitude for his
unparalleled successes in the chariot races.

LafUvov I dy40eKe{v) *kOa»aia{C\ \ IXoXidxp
vixAhas I rairra dr' o(f84i || ireiroKa rov vvv, \
TdSe ivUahe Aa/u[6yoy] ' | rf aOro reBplxxt^i] airrbi dvioxlov \
iv VaiaFbxo Trrpd«ri[v] (| koX 'ASdvata rerlpdKtvl \ K4\evhCvia rer-
[poKiv]' I Kol UoholSaia Aa/u6yo[v] iuLxe 'EXei, koI 6 k4\[€^ | dfi}a^
airbs dvtoxlov \\ 4yhefi6hais Ixtois | iirrdKiv 4k rap airro \ Xttop k4k
TO ai^r"^ rrirfo]' | koX llohol8ata Aafibvov | [4]plKe Oevplg. 6Krd[K]i[p'\
ii o«>r6f dpioxlop 4p\h€pbhait txTois \ 4k rap avro Xttop \ k4k ro
axrro Xtto' \ k4p 'Apioprlas ivUe \\ AafUpop bKrdKiP \ a&rbs dpioxiop \
4phe^i>haLS Xttou \ 4k rap ai>ro Xtttov I k4k ro airro Ttto, koI \\ 6 K4\e^
4plKe\ana']' Kal 'EXevAi^ta LayJibpop'] \ 4plKe avrbi dpioxlop \ 4p?up6-
hais Xttois \ rerpdKtp. || TdSe 4piKahe. [The rest is fragmentary
and unintelligible.]

Cauer,* No. 17 b ; D. L No. 4416.

554 APPENDIX B

2. Hkraclea

638. The Heraclean tables were found in the bed of a
Lucanian stream in the year 1732. They are two in number,
of bronze, and contain minute details with regard to the
letting of certain lands belonging to the local temple. They
probably date from about the end of the fourth century &c
The dialect is not pure and the alphabet is Ionic, although it
has a symbol for F which is not, however, used medially.
The numerals appear sometimes in Doric, sometimes in
Hellenistic forms. The most noticeable points are : —

i. Arbitrary use of the spiritus asper : IfiWy otaom-i, 6im^ irriu,
(under the influence of iirrd),

ii. (a) . The dative plural of participles in -nt appears as

'trroffffi : xpoffchnrroffirit fyraaffi (from a variant plural frres =5innet'u

(6) The perfect active makes its infinitive in -n/Jier : re^--

TiVKTjfup, In the contraction of vowels the dialect belongs to the

dicUectus severior.

3. Messenia

639. From Andania in Messenia there is a long inscrip-
tion dealing with sacrificial rites in honour of the Kabeiri,
but it is too late (first century b.c.) to be of value for the
dialect The treaty from Phigalea which belongs to the third
century b.c. shows Aetolian influence.

The contraction of vowels is still true to the Doric type.
The most characteristic features are : —

(a) The 3rd plural of subjunctives in •ijrrt not -tam : wpan-

(b) The particles dv and ku are both used in the Andaman
inscription.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 555

From first Heraclean table.

Toi tk fuadwrcLfiivoi Kapw€va6yrau rbv iL€l xP^^^t ^^ "^^
TpvYY^un TOTdy(av\Ti Kal rb fdffBwiM dirodiSCaPTi rdp Firoi
del Hat^dfjua firfybi rporepcff * Kal {oX) k* fftwpoffOa \ dToSlviam,
drck^6yTi is rhv da/iiatw (tcyhv kqX Trapfurprfffdi^ri tms (Firayiprau
Toti I ixl Tuv Feribiv rf dafuxrltfi x^ ftxarCn rwf xoOf KfuBas KoOapdi
SoKlfMi, dfat Ka d 7a I ^p€i. Uora^Syri Si Tp<ayy^\as rdis To\ieur6pLOis
ToTs del M Tuv Feritay (vroffffiy trdp || Tevrainiplda &i xa iOeXdyrts
Tol To\tay6fioi SeKdm-ai, xal at rivl Ka dXXy | TapdCUvTi rdv 701', &v
Ka aOrol fiefUffOtaadayrai, ij dpr^auvri ij dTo8<ivrai rdv i\Ti.KafrKiav,
dv ai>rd rd irapi^bvrai. TpuYY6<as ol irapKa^vrts ^ cits k* dprOaei ^ oi
Tpi\afUvoi rdy iTucaprlay, dy d koI 6 i^ dpxaj fiefUffdwfjJvos. "Oeris
B4 Ka firi Tordyei rf>uyyj^\(as ij fi^i rb fdffBtafM drodtSi} Kdr rd
yeypafifUiKiy r6 t€ fdffOtafM dtrXct dToreuret rb iwl rQ Fi^tos Kal
rb dfiTu)\ri/xa rots re ToKiaybfiois Kal rots airaydprais rots del ixl rw
F4t€os, Saatfi Ka \ luiwos dfi/uffOuSij rdp xirre Firr} rd irpdra, tin
Ka T€\4$€i \/^a<pie0iv &fia rav rt} Tpdnp \ fuaOtafiarif koI rd iv rf
yq. Tf^vrevfUya Kal oUobofirffUya \ xdrra ras t6\ios ia-ffbyrai.

Kaibel, LS.L No. 646 ; Cauer,^ No. 40 ; D.L No. 4629.

The passage given above is from near the beginning of a lease
of the "sacred lands of Dionysus** granted according to a decree
of the Heracleans by the state and certain magistrates called
To\tav6fjLoi. The lease ^is for life. The lessees are to have the
crops so long as they produce sureties and pay the rent annually
on the first of Panamus (September). If the lessees thresh out
before, they are to bring to the public granary (Lat. rogus) and
measure out with the state measure before the oflScials appointed
for the year the required amount of good pure barley such as the
land produces. The sureties must be produced every five years
before the officials, to be accepted or rejected at their discretion.
If the lessees sublet, or mortgage, or sell the crop, the new tenant
or mortgagee or purchaser of the crop is to take the responsibilities
of the original tenant. If a lessee fails to produce sureties or to
pay his rent, he is fined double a year's rent and a fine on reletting
fixed by the popular vote in proportion to the decrease in the new
rent obtained (the land being supposed to be run out and therefore
at first fetching less rent on reletting) for the first five years.
Everything planted or built upon the estate by the defaulting
lessee is to fall to the state.

556 APPENDIX B

4. Argolis and Aegina

640. Argolis included besides Argos other important towns:
Mycenae, Troezen, Tiryns, Hermione, and Epidauru& Fn>ni
the temple of Aesculapius at £pidaurus a large number c:
interesting inscriptions have been obtained in recent jean.
The earliest Argolic inscriptions are too short to be of mneb
value for the dialect, but we can see that f was still retained :
cTTotf cA€, a form which shows the same comparatively ku
change of intervocalic -o-- as we have already seen in £lea£
and Laconian. Eoppa is also found in some of the oldest
inscrintions.

i. (a) Final -vi is preserved as in Cretan : rhv^ ul6yt, KX^p^oian.
Similarly medial -ys- is found in Bltwow from Mycenae asd
iriih¥C9M% from Nemea.

(6) 'cB- is represented at Epidaurus (1) by -9- alone, as some-
times in Cretan : ^IBfiopUa ; (2) by -«-- : iyKaroirrpL^aa'aty the soolJ
apparently being >.
ii. (a) Verbs of the Attic type -^u make the aorist in -^n

(6) At Epidaurus avvrlOriai occurs as a 2nd person.

(c) From Epidaurus comes the infinitive iTi0vif=iirte^tmu

5. MeGARA and its colonies SeLINUS AND

Byzantium

641. The inscriptions are not old, and Aristophanes*
Megarian in the AcharnianSj 729-835 is not to be trusted
There was a close connexion between Boeotia and Megan
which has influenced the Megarian dialect at least in
Aegosthena.

o-ot ftavj in the AchamianSj 757 shows a plural *Tt-a
(§ 197 n.).

THE GREEK DIALECTS 657

From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus.

'AH;p ToiW rat x^pdf ^xnJXovf d4C/oar6(f ^oii' irXdy | ivh\ d[0]kero
Toi T^y de^ iic^at. OewpWK 5^ Toi>f ^r rwc lapwc | [rjiyaicaf dr/oTCi
TOiT Idfiaaiy koX inrodtiavpe rd ^ri7pd|&fia|[r]a. 'E7jca^ei^d<i»' 5^ tf^ty
elde* id6K€i inrb rCk vaiai dffrpaytiKlj^ov^'^s olvtov Koi lUKKovrot
^iXKtiv tCji iffTpayd\un ixKpavivTa \ [r]6y Otbv i<^\4ff0ai M rdv
XVP<'^ f^f"^ ^rreci'a/ oif to^ daim)|[\]ovf, un 6* dTopalri, 8ok€iv ffvyKdfiif^at
rdy xnP^ f*^' ^* iicrtlvup \ [t]«v ^icHiXiaVy irel di rdtrrai i^evBOyatf
iTtpufTTJv VL¥ Tb» d€6Pf \\ [c]i fri dirionjo-ot rott ixvypdmuici rdis iwl
rdfi XLvdKiav rGty \ [«:]aTd rd [l]6/>6y, a^bi 8* o6 ipd/iev Sri rolpvy
ffiTpoffOev dr/oTctf | [a]^o[t]f o[vk] iowrw dTlaroit, t6 Xocrdy (ffna
Toi <pdfi€Pf Airurrot \ [d 6\/^is]. *AfUpat 6i ycvofiii^as iryi^ i^riXBe, —
'Afi^poata i^ *Ada»Saf \ [dTep6]TT[i]\\oj. ktra Zir^tj] ffkOt roi rhv
0€6p. HeptipTOvaa 8i \ [«:ard r]d [lalpdi^ T&y laijudnav nvd dtryi^Xa
a;T dxlOava Kal ddiH'a||[ra ^6i^}ra x^^^oi^ i^^^ rwftKoin irficis yivtadoA
iwvTTVLov l^v^rai /Ui^oy. *'ErYKa$€^5ovffa Si 6\/^ip elde* i56Keiol 6 0€^
iTTUFTdi I [e/reiy], 0r[(] iryt^ /u^y puf Toirfaoif fu<r$6fi fidpToi pip SeifffoT
dp\[0ifup e]/t t6 lap^F 5v dpyCpeop, inr6fUfapM ras dfjuidlai' cfrav|[ra
d^ (?) raOra] dyox^o-frcu oif t6p drrlXKov t6p poaowra Kal 0dp/t[a||«r6y
Ti iyxi}ou. *Afji4pai Bi y€POfUpat [i]7t^s ^^X^e.

I). I. No. 3339. Cp. Csvyadias, FouilUs d^J^pidaure, p. 25.
Prellwitz in D.L accents iroi, but iroL seems preferable. After
ixurro's Csyt. reads 0i{ofia].

From Megara. Date, third century b.c.

'Erctdfy 'ATa^oirX^ * Apx^lidfijov \ Bocc^riof cffi^ovf ^uw dtarcXei | kcU
evcpyiras rod Sdftav rov \ "Heyaftiup, dyaOSu rl^ou, S€56\\x0ou tSa
/SovXdt Koi rfak dd/iwi | Tp^cpop a^6p €Xfi€y Kal iK\y6povs a^oO ras
T6\iot Tas I VLeyapitay Karrbp p6fJL0P' ttfiep \ Si air&i koI olKlas
ffixaxrip II Kol TpocBplap ifi iraci roh dy(a\aip oli d T6X(t rlBriTi,
* Ayy pa}f/d\T<a Si r6 SSyfia rSSt 6 ypafifialre^i rod Sdfiov ip ardXaL
Xi^^ji^at, KoX dpBh-ta eU t6 *0\vfJLTtelop. \\ Batf'tXei)^ UacidSar
icTpard\yovp Liopinnot HvpplSa, Aa/ii\as MarpoicX^of, *ApTt^\ot
Zftdlxov, Mpaffl$€Of Uafflufpot, *£/>Jc<w[r] j TAiyrw. TpafifM[Te^]
povKas II Kol Sd/utv "ImrufP Uayxipeot.

Cauer," No. 106 ; D.L No. 3006.

558 APPENDIX B

6. Corinth with its colonies Corcyra,
Syracuse, etc.

642. The dialect of the bucolic poets Theocritus, Bioc,
and MoschuB is often said to be Doric of Syracuse, but is too
artificial and eclectic to be true to the spoken dialect of anj
one place. The dialect of Theocritus in his Doric idylls, if
the MSS. tradition could be trusted, seems to resemble more
the dialect spoken in the island of Cos and its neighbourhood
than any other. The works of Archimedes are too late to
record the dialect accurately, and here again the tradition h^s
been faulty.

643. The old inscriptions of Corinth and her colonies art
few and short

i. (a) In the earlier dialect F and ? were preserved ; ( and y
are written x^% ^ s ^(fA»9f»^ (ypa^e.

(6) Corcyrean shows an unvoiced /> in phoFatax and possiblT
a similar M in Mhei^ios, while F is used as a glide in dpiffrt^Fam.
etc.

(c) In Corcyrean and Sicilian X before dentals appeared as r :
ivd6» {CoTcyra) = i\0^b», Syracusan ^urrlast etc,=*»XWaf.

(d) Sicilian also transposed the initial sounds of a^ : ^i, etc..
and made 2nd aorist imperatives in -oi^, \dp» for \afi4, etc.

ii. Hie perfects were declined as presents in Sicilian, is
ScSolKUff ireirdvOcts, SeS^KctP (inf.) in Theocritus, dtfaytypA^orm io
Archimedes.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 559

From Corinth.

Cauer,2 No. 71 ; />./. No. 3114.

Af €via the same root as in Attic Acivta?. Observe the
quantity of the middle syllable.

From Corcyra.

(a) Sa/xa rMc 'Aprid^a Xap6T0f* rbr li*SKe\ff€V 'Apcf
papvdfjtevoy irapd yav(r|2y ^t' *Apd6$oio phoFauri
ToXX6|i^ dpiar€{{Fy>rra JcarA ffT0P6f€9'((r)ay dFvrdv.

Cauer," No. 84 ; D.I. No. 3189.

Papvd/JAVov, § 206. Blass in -D./. reads dpurrevrovra^
supposing the second r a mistake.

Date probably fourth century kg.

(&) Updrapit Inrpdrwifj \ /lelt "ifvSpe^t, dfUpa T€[rdpra M d^jca,
xpoffrdrai \ TrdOtot 'ZtaKpdrevf, || Up^cyor roe? d dXia | Atoy^ioy
^pvvlxov I *A$rjPOUOP a^br kcu \ ixybpoutf dld^ari Si koI | 70; koI
olxlat f/i^affip. II Tdi' W rpofeyfoF 7pd^aK|Taf eit xa^«^ dp04fup \
ef Ka irpoPo6\oit koI irpoldijcoci dojc^ miXwt Ix'ty. | Atovdtf-iov ||
^pvplxov I 'Atfiyyator.

Cauer,» No. 89 ; D,I. No. 8199.

From Syracuse. Found at Olympia.
ffidfiop 6 AetyoM^yeof | xal rd Xvpeucoaloi | t§ A2 T6p{p)aLp' drb

Cauer,» No. 95 ; D.L No. 3228.

560 APPENDIX B

7. Crete

644. Of all the Doric dialects that exemplified in the
early Cretan of the great Gortyn inscription is the most
peculiar. The date is uncertain, but probably not later than
the fifth century b.c. Other Cretan inscriptions are later
and less characteristic. There are a few marked similarities
in the Gtortyn dialect to the Arcado-Cyprian which may be
the result of dialect mixture. As early as the date of the
Odyssey (xix. 175 ff.) there were different elements in the
population of Crete :

AXKrf d* AXKtav 7\ii)<r<ra lUfurffUrn' iv fih *Axcuo^
iv S* *ET€6KfnfT€s fuyaKi/JTopfS iv 8i K68w€Sy
Aiapiies re Tpix^i^^s Siol re ILtXoffyoi.

646. i. (a) -rt- is represented medially by -tt- as in the Thes-
salian and Boeotian dialects : dr&rroi (6ir6<rot), Idrrq, ( = *e-«fU-idi.)
dative of present participle of elfd. But -rri- became -ra- : iKuwoM

(6) Attic i* is represented by 5 initially in ^6f ( =f(bi6r). In
the dialects of other Cretan towns r- or rr- is found in the Initial
sound of Zei^t, Z^i^a, which is represented at Dreros by T^a, on a
coin by Tr^i^a. Medially -5d- is found in lUa^Bev {8ucd^€»),

(e) The combination -ns was kept both medially and finally :
fievffL (dat plural of fJLriv)^ iiriffirevae (-ySff-), ^irt/3dX\oi'tf'i (dat. pluiml),
fKova-cur, rtftdps, i\ev$4poPif KaraOivi (participle). Bat generally
rbit rds (ace. pi.) before an initial consonant (§248).

{d) In the Gortyn inscription aspirates are not distinguished
from breathed stops : rvXaf , d^rpoirop, Kpifum, 0, however, is
written except in combination with v. It seems to have become
a spirant and to have assimilated a preceding <r in dwo-F€iw£06o
( = ilTdffdw), dTuiiSdai and irvUBaif etc.

{e) AssimilatioD of a final consonant to the initial oonaonant
of the following word is very common : rarkS S6f {^wariip ^i&p),
rdS Bvyaripat, raid W, riX X| (=tij XJ) "(if) one wish."

(/) According to the grammarians X before another oon-
sonant in Cretan became v: titOtof (=A^eiy), adxt/ova ( = dXjct$a»a\
a^ffoi (=:AX0-m). The statement is not supported by the inscrip-
ons.

[Continued art p. 562.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 561

From Gortyn. Part of Table IV., dealing with the property
of parents.

rhv Taripa top \ rimv koL rw Kp€/iiTO¥ K\aprr€p6p fft€y rad
daLfftoSf II Kal rdf fMT^pa top Fop ailrSis Kpifjidrop,

4s fca dioPTiy I /tl ixdwaPKOP ffiep Saril B$au at 84 ris draOtley
dro8\aTTd66cu rf drafUp^, i\\i iypdrrcu, i 84 k* dwoBdp^ rit, |
{<r)T4yaPs fUp rdps ip ir6Xt #c||4 rt jc' ip rats {<r)T4yait ip^, al\s Ka /u
FoiKc^s ipFoiK^ ^irli Kdpq. FoucloPj Kai rd Tpd^ara Ka\\l Ka/)ra[(]iroda,
& Ka iiM FoiK€ot ft I ixl rois vldfft ^A^ev, rd 8* &\\\a Kpifiara rdyra
8aTt06a\i jcaXos, Kal Xopxdptp rbs fi\^p vli^s, inrdrroi k* topri, 8C\\o
fwlpaps FiKacTOPf Td8 8\4 OvyaripapSf 6ir6TTai k* (op\tij fdap fji^Upav
FeKdffTOP B[\t\y\aTi[pa'\,

al 84 Kal tA fiaT^^a, ^ | k' dTO$d[p€]t, Jire|>] rd [iroT^iTH
4[ypdTT}au. al 84 xpifuiTa iti erjf, ffr^TO 5e, \aK4p rdO ^vI(7)]o-
rilpaSf $ 4ypdTTat.

al 84 Ka X6,'t 6 irarkp do6s Ihp 86fiep ra|( dxmotupq., 8&ro Kard
T\\d 4ypafifupa, x'Ktopa 84 yJk, \

oreif 84 irp666* 48ok€ ? irialirepffe, roOr' (Kep, AXXa W ^^1|
diroXaplxdlpcp,

Baunacks' text, Ins, v, Oortyn, p. 102.

The general drift of the passage is as follows : The father
. is to have control oyer his children and property with regard

«. to its division among them, the mother is to have control

over her own property. In the parents' lifetime a division is
,< not to be neces8ary, but if one (of the children) be fined he is

^ to receive his share according as it is written. When there is

a death, houses in the city and all that is in them, those
houses excepted in which a Voikeus (an adscriptus glebae)
lives who is on the estate, and sheep and cattle, those be-
longing to a Voikeus excepted, shall belong to the sons ; all
other property shall be divided honourably, the sons to get
each two shares, the daughters one share each. If the
mother's property [be divided] on her death, the same rules
^ as for the father's must be observed. If there be no other

property but a house, the daughters are to get their statutory

2 0 [ConUnued on p, 563.

>

562 APPENDIX B

{g) e in Cretan, as also in some other Dorian dialects.
appears as t before another vowel : SvodeKaFerla, b/ioXoylowrt (anbj. )w
KoXlw (part), xpa^iofkcv (fut).

il. (a) The ace. plural of consonant stems is made in -wn on
the analogy of vowel stems : fuurijpays {=fuipTvpas), ^c^SoXX^rrvs,
etc

(6) Other Cretan inscriptions sometimes show -cf for -« in
the nom. plural iKo6a-wT€v, AfUv (" we ").

(e) Some subjunctives carry an -d vowel throughout : Smifuuy

8. Melos and Thera with its colony Cyrenl

646. The earliest inscriptions from Melos and Thera are
written in an alphabet without separate symbols for <^, X? ^^
^, which are therefore written trh^ kIi, or <fh, inr, Ka, c + c
and 0 + o are represented by e and o. The digamma seems,
however, to have been lost. Cyrene preserved some of these
peculiarities long after its mother city Thera had changed to
the milder Doric.

9. Rhodes with its colonies Gela and
Agrigentum

647. ii (a) The present and aorist infinitives end in -/tov :

86/JL€iPf €tfJL€lV,

{b) The infinitive of the perfect ends in -etr : tct^c&t.
(c) Some -a« verbs appear in -e« : rt/iioiVrey, etc

648. It is characteristic of Rhodes and also of Cos, Cnidns^
and other districts in its neighbourhood to contract eo into
€v : 7roi€Vfi€vos, OevKkrjsj etc. The same contractiony how-
ever, is frequently found in the later Ionic

THE GREEK DIALECTS 563

portion. If the father chooees in his lifetime to give a portion
to a daughter on her marriage, such portion must not exceed
the amounts already specified ; if he has given beforehand or
guaranteed any sum to a daughter, she is to have that sum
but is not to receive a portion with the others.

From Melos. Date probably first half of sixth century rc.

Toi A(6f, 'EicirA^iFr^ ddKcai r6d* dfitnrhis AyaKfiA,
aol ydp iT€vich6fU¥OS tout iTiXccac yp&irhtav.

D.L No. 4871.

From Thera. Names from rock tombs. Date probably in
seventh century &c.

QJuLpvfidKha, KptTowhiXo (genitive). UpaKalXa iiid. Ohap6-
fjLa9hos ixol€.

There is also a long and interesting inscription from Thera
— the testagnentum Epidetae — but it is too late to show strong
dialectic peculiarities.

From Camirus in Rhodes. Date before Alexander the Great.

"Edo^c Kafupewrv t6.s KToivas rds Kafupiuv rdr | iy r$ vdatp
Kal rdf iv Tq. irelpip dpaypd}f/ou xdaas \ koX ix^^M-^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^P^^
rar 'AdtUfcUas i{p) ardXq \ \iOluq X^P^^ XdXKJjs • i^/JLeip Si Kal
XaXKi^cuf {I dvaypa^fieuff af «ca XP^^^*'^^ i\4a-6at Si AvSpas |
Tp€U ai>r£/ca fidXa^ olfru^ef iTifu\ri6rj(r€vyTi Tai/jras rat irpd^i<n
Cn TdxKTra Kcd dTodwrewTcu | r^ XPH^^"^^ iXax^ov xapa-
(TX'^iv rdy ordXay | koX rds xroivai dvaypdyj^ai koI iyKoXdrj/ou
iif Tf 0T(i||Xf Kol irTwrai iv t<} lep(f rat *A0dvas koX repi^oXi^Qlaai
C)S ixv ^ lax^P^^"^^ ^^^ ffdXXarra* rd Sk T€\Xe(tfjt£va ii raOra
irdjrro. r^ Tdfdoof TapdxeiP.

Cauer,2 No. 176 (part) ; D.I. No. 4118.

From Agrigentum. Found at Dodona.

[Beds] TiJxa dyaOd, \
fEri Tlpoordra A€v\[K}dpov, d<f>iKo/Jiiv(a\v 'Ir-
roffOiveos, Tei\[<rio]s, "Ep/xtavm, SeXijytof, (So-
^6 Tcis I MoXoaaoh Tpo\^evlav d6fiety | toU
*AKpayajn-l\\voii,

Cauer,« No. 200 ; D.I. No. 4266.

564 APPENDIX B

Ionic

649. This dialect it is unnecessary to discuss at lengUi
because its characteristics are more familiar than those of
less literary dialects, and because a more detailed account
than it is possible to give here is accessible in English.^ The
literary records of this dialect far outweigh its inscriptions in
importance.

650. It is generally said that Homer is written in old
Ionic, but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly
the artificial product of a literary school and no exact repre-
sentative of the spoken dialect of any one period. (1) No
spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example,
three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use : -oto, -co, and
-ov, which represent three different stages of development.
(2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress
the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans-
literations of older and obsolete forms. Thus cws and tcois
should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands,
ijos (cp. Doric c[s) and ti}os ; helhio. represents SeSFia ; 6€Cofi€v^
<rT€lofi€v are erroneous forms for ^o/a€v, crrrjofi^v. (3) It is
by no means certain that the original lays of which Homer is
apparently a redaction were in Ionic at all. Fick holds with
considerable show of reason that these poems were originally
in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the
poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which
differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched. A
parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where
the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewulf are found
only in a West-Saxon transliteration.

651. Between Homer and the. later Ionic of Herodotus,
Hippocrates, and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the

1 In the introduction to Professor Strachan's edition of
Herodotus, Book vi., where everything necessary for the ordinary
classical student is collected. The advanced student has dow the
opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatises on this dialect hy
H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894) and O. Hoffmann (Gottingen,
1898).

[Continued on p. 566.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 565

(1) From Miletus. A fragment found in the ruins of

the ancient theatre.

vTiaVy \afipdP€ip Si tA tipfjuara #c[oi] tA AXXa yipca, *^v (v

$[6Tj]ratf Xd[^c|Tat 7X«<r]<rai', da^p^v, Saainv, &p7fv. ^v Sk x\i<a
0{rrjTai, Xd^rrac dr* ixdarov 6<r^[Pf \ Bafff\a» KaX 'yXGxrffav xal KtoKrlv
fdav &xb vdvTtav, Kod rdtv AXXwi^ BeCov tup \ [ivyrefUplwVf 6cia»
Uparax 6 Upiws, Xd^rrcu tA 7^pca tA ajJrA koX kuKt^v di'TiI|[T]^j &p^^i
ijfi fiTfl /ScurtXei); Xafi^dviji. *Hf Si tiKxrhp O&rfi i) r^Xts, Xdr/zerai
y\u><r\a(Uf, ^<f>(fv, da<r4ay, &pnpf. *'Rv ^oi Upowoiiji rut 'AT^XXowt,
TpoitpaaOou tCH^pJI \ dcrtay d» 8lv 0i\rii 6 ^vot, SiSdvai Si rCk lepei
rd yipea Axep ii ir6Xtj 5t3oi T[di'|Ta] Xf^P^^ S€piidT(a\y\ ir[X'J)i'] rois
'AiroXXwfots. . . .

Bechtel, /./. No. 100 ; Hoffmann, iii. p. 68.

Bechtel explains &fyq as ui/ioTrkdrq and quotes a scholiast
on Odyssey xii. 89 : rovs "Iwvas Acyciv <^a<ri ti)v KiaXrjv (oprjv
Kol b}paiav,

(2) From the ancient Keos, modem Tzid. Date, near

end of fifth century B.c.

OtSc v6[ijHoi T€pi rOy Ka7ia](f>$i[jjjf}ffu[v #cotA | Td]de ^d[irT]ei»
t6v Oavbvra' iv \ ^f([aT]/o[is Tp\i}jl \evKots, (rrpdafuiTi koX MOfULTi
[Kal I iJjTi^^fiaTi — i&yai W icai ip A[d]<r[<r]o<r[t — /il|^] T\4opoi
d^lois TOij rpiffl ^/c[or6]i' S[pa\x]fUup, ix^P^ ^^ ^ kKIptii <r0[e]-
v6{[Tod( ic]|oi Ilk KoX&iTTepf tA S* 6X[o]a"xcrf^a] TOi[j ^/xar]|/oty.
ipepep di dtpop ixl t6 ffijl[ji]a \ji}k [t\4op] \ rpiCop x^^ '^^ fKatop
fii ir>J[i]o[p] i[p]6is, rA 8i \\ dy^yeta dxo4>ip€<rd(u. t6p 6ap6[p]Ta
[Si (ffipcp I K]aTCiK€Ka\vfitUpop (ntaTrji fU[x]p^ [^i tS \ (r]^/xa. Tpoa-
<f>aylui, [xlpf^^a* ^JarA [rJA T[dTpi\a- rj^yy K\Lprp> dvb to[0]
(r[ijAi]o[r]o[j #c}ai t[A] ofrptif/ijara iatpipep Miarc. r^t 3^ 6<rre-
/)o/[i;t BC\a.']ppaipep r^p oUlriP [i]\€\^0}epop ^aX[d<r<r»7|t] Tpwrop^ fvctra
[aX]i{K]{in-[wt] 6[^€]if -nflXou aT\d]pTa' ix^p Sk SiapapOiji, KaOap^p
tpai T^p olKirjPf Kal 06rj Oj^€p i<p[l<ma], \ rAr yvpaiKas tAs [/]oj5<r[a]s
[i}irl t6 k^S[os I dliriipai Trporipas tQp . . dpSpwp dirb [tov \\ a"}-^-
fMTos, 4tI tQi dopbPTi rpiii)Kba\Tia ixi \ rjoief. iik {/iroTiOipai
K^\iKa vrb T[i)7 K\l\p}rjp, /ji^bi rb Cb<ap iKyjEP^ /xeW tA /caXXi5[<r|ia]|Ta
^p€P ivl rb crjfM. 6tov dp [O^dprn^ ilir^p ^]|^f»'cx^f*» M^ ^''^^

[Continued on p. 567.

564 APPENDIX B

Ionic

649. This dialect it is unnecessary to discuss at length
because its characteristics are more familiar than those of
less literary dialects, and because a more detailed account
than it is possible to give here is accessible in English.^ The
literary records of this dialect far outweigh its inscriptions in
importance.

650. It is generally said that Homer is written in old
Ionic, but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly
the artificial product of a literary school and no exact repre-
sentative of the spoken dialect of any one period. (1) No
spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example,
three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use : -oto, -oo, and
-ov, which represent three different stages of development.
(2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress
the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans-
literations of older and obsolete forms. Thus ecus and rcu>9
should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands,
ijos (cp. Doric 5s) and t^os ; h^ihio. represents ScSFta ; Ociofuev^
oT€io/x€v are erroneous forms for OrjoiJi^v, crTrjoficv. (3) It is
by no means certain that the original lays of which Homer is
apparently a redaction were in Ionic at all. Fick holds with
considerable show of reason that these poems were originally
in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the
poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which
differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched, A
parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where
the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewulf are found
only in a West-Saxon transliteration.

651. Between Homer and the later Ionic of Herodotus,
Hippocrates, and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the

^ In the introduction to Professor Strachan's edition of
Herodotos, Book vi., where everything necessary for the ordinary
classical student is collected. The advanced student has now the
opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatises on this dialect by
H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894) and 0. Hoffmann (Gcittingcn,
1898).

[Continued on p. 566.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 565

(1) From Miletus. A fragment found in the ruins of

the ancient theatre.

vnaPy Xafifidpeip Si rA d^pfiara /t[oi] rd AXXa y^pea, *B.v 9y

B[&rj]TCUf \6[\l/€\Tai yXua-yraVj 6a'<p6v, Saffiav^ &pfrpf. ijv 8^ r\4<a
O&ifjTat, Xd^erat dr* ixdirrov 6a-<f>6[», \ 8a(r4]ay Kal y\wr<rap xal KuiXrjv
fdav &.irb xdvTUP. kolL tuv dWuv $€wp r&y \ [ivJ^TefuifluiVj 6cu3v
lepdrat 6 UpitaSj Xdrj/ercu rd y4p€a rd aird Kal ku>\^v dvrll'^Tjfji &priSf
Ijfi fi^ paaiXeifs Xafi^dinji, *Hir 5^ eifirrhnf O&rfi •/{ ir6X(s, Xd^erat
y\u>a\<raPf 6a<l>6p, dour^av, &fyriv. ^Rv ^4voi Upowoirji rwi 'AT6XX(i»'i,
TpottpdcOcu tQ[v'\ I doTwv di' dp Oi\rii 6 ^4poif SiSdpai 8^ rwi Upet
rd yipea direp ^ t6X(S 8i8di T[dv|Ta] x<^P^^ Jcp/idTwfi'], t[X^)i'] toTj
* AttoWcjpIois. . . .

Bechtel, /./. No. 100 ; Hoffmann, iii. p. 58.

Bechtel explains &fn) as ijfioirkdrrj and quotes a scholiast
on Odyssey xii. 89 : tovs "Iwvas Acyciv «/>ao-l rriv KtaXrjv taprjv
Kal (upaiav.

(2) From the ancient Keos, modern Tzi4. Date, near

end of fifth century b.c.

OUe p6[/ji\oi T€pl Tuy irar[a]0d{[>i^]yw[v' /card | Td^St $d[TT']€P
rbp OoLPbpra' ip \ ^ft[ar]/o[(S T/>|t]a"i XevKoii, ffTpibfiart Kal Mi^fiaTi
[Kal I i]inp\ifMTi — i&pai 8i Kal ip ^X[d]<r[<r]o<r[i — Mik] tX^opos
d^lois TO? J Tpial iK[aTd]p S[pa\x]p^(ap. ix4*^P^ ^^ ^7 kXIptji o-0[e]-
v6\[Tro8i K]'al fU Ka\&irT€Pf rd S* 6X[o]<rx€p[^a] toi[j ifiarlllois.
<p€p€P 8i otpop ixl rb <r^[/i]a \jk\^ [irX^oi»] | Tpi(ap x^v Kal fKaiop
pJk irXt^Mi'] ^[I'Mr, rd 8k \\ dy^f^ia dxwf>ip€ceai, rbp eapi{p)fra
[8k <f>ip€P I K'\aTaK€KaKvfjLtUpop aiunriji. iU[x\pL [irl rb \ <r]^/xa. rpwr-
<f>ayi<ai [x]p^^^o.i K]ard [rjd T[drpt|a' r]^yy K\lpipf dxb rc{v]
a[iflPi'}a[r]o[i ic]ai r[d] <r[rp<Hfi]ara i<T<t>iptP ip8b<T€. rrji 8k i^o-tc-
paf\rii. 8C\a\ppaiP€P r^p oIkItip [i]\e\{i{0}epop ^oX[d<r(r»7|t] irpGnop^ fireira
[d\]\^K]<ar[(ik] 6[^€% rri[\ou 0r\d]pra' iv^p 8k 8iapap6T}i, KaOap^p
tpaL r^p olKirjPf Kal BOti 0^€p i<p[l(ma'\. | rds yvpaUas rds [QojJ<r[a]j
[ijtrl rb K7j8[os | djinipai irpvHpa^ rup . . dpSpQp dvb [rov \\ <r]ij-
fULTot, iirl rQi Bapbpri rpiii)K6a\ria fik | tIoup. fU inronOipai
Kl/Xuca inrb 't[\j[y K\i\pyiP, fji£8k rb ii8(op iKXCP, /ie8k rd icaXX(^<r;Lia]lTa
<f>4p€P ivl rb ffijfxa 8irov dp [d'jdprii, iliriip €]^€P€X&€i^ M^ Ikpai

[Continued on p. 567.

566 APPENDIX B

poets, Archiloclius of Paros, Simonides of Amorgos, Hipponax
of Ephesus, Anacreon of Teos, Mimnermus and Xenophanes
of Colophon. It seems probable that these x>oets kept on the
whole closely to the dialect of their native towns, although not
without a certain admixture of Epic forms in elegiac poetry.

652. According to Herodotus (i. 142) there were four
divisions of Eastern or Asiatic Ionic. But there is not
enough evidence preserved to us to confirm the dLstinction
thus drawn. Ionic may therefore be distinguished geo-
graphically into (1) the Ionic of Asia Minor spoken in the
great centres Miletus, Ephesus, Chios, Samos, and the other
Ionic settlements and their colonies, (2) the Ionic of the
Cyclades : Nazos, Eeos, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Siphnos, Andios,
los, Myconos, and (3) the Ionic of Euboea.

653. It is characteristic of all Ionic (a) to change everi-
original a into e (77) ; (6) to drop, except in a few sporadic
instances, the digamma,

654. Eastern Ionic has entirely lost the spiritus atp^.
Eastern Ionic and the Ionic of the Cyclades agree in con-
tracting -icA.€i/$ into -/cA.^s, and in making the genitive of -t-
stems in -tos not -tSos. The Ionic of the Cyclades and of
Euboea agree in retaining the spirUus asper, but in £ubo6a
'Kkerjs is still written and the genitive of -t- stems is in 'tSo«i.
both features being also characteristic of Attic Euboea i$
peculiar in having rhotacism in the dialect of Eretria : o^o/xi^
irapaPaivfapiVf (rirrjpiv.

655. The curious phenomenon not yet fully explained
whereby Ionic presents forms in ko-, loy- from the Indo-
Germanic stem g»o-, qVa-^ while other dialects give forms in
TTo-, TTT/-, is confined to the literature, no example of a form
in KG- or KTf- having yet been discovered on an inscription.

656. The relations in literature between the Ionic dialect
and Attic Greek have often been misunderstood. The forms
which the tragedians and Thucydides share with Ionic, e.g.
'O-a-- where Aristophanes, Plato and the Oratora have -tt-, are
borrowed from Ionic, which previous to the rise of Athens to
pre-eminence was the specially literary dialect Attic Qreek
never possessed forms in -cv-, which it changed later to -tt-.

THE GREEK DIALECTS 567

Ywoiifof rQ)6]j t[V o^]||f 'i?" dXXaj # rhx /uawofUpar \jjt}Lei[lp€ff6\a]i
8i firp^pa Kol ywaixa xal dd€[X^Aj <c|a]l [0]uyaT4fMS, irp[6]i W
ToiJT[o]tj /i^ [T\iov T\4]rr€ ywaiKuv, iraUas 8i [SOo^ ^]u7[aW/xif |
djye^twi', dXXot' 8^ M[e]3[^»']a. [r]oi>j |>]ta[ti'o/x^|yow] Xoi;<roM^yo[!;j]

ir[€pi rdyra riv XP**""* I Wot]os [xJiJo"* Ka[(?opjoi>j ?y(u €

...... I 17 . yu . . . . T . . . . I r

Ditteriberger's text, Sylloge Ins, Qraee, p. 664 (ed. 1) ; vol. iL
p. 725 (ed. 2). Cp. /./. No. 43 ; HoflFmann, iii. p. 23.

H is used for original d^ E for original e and for the
spurious diphthong, but note the diphthongs Odvrji and 8ui-
pavOrji^ where -€t might be expected.

(3) From Oropus. In the dialect of Eretria. Date is be<
tween 411 and 402 B.C., or 387 and 377 ac, the only
periods in the age to which it belongs when Oropus
was an independent state.

Qeol, I T6tf Upia rod ^Afu^apdov 0oirdy e/f r6 i€p6\p iveiSdv
X^tfiMv TapiXdci iJ^xfi^ dp&rov &p\'iis, fi^ rX^oy StaXelTwra rj Tpeis
ijfiipasy KoX II fiipeiv iv toi Updt fi^ Aarroy 1j dixa rifUpa\s rod firfi^bs
iKdxrrov.

Kal iTTOPayKcii^eiy rbv ¥\€uaKbpO¥ rov re lepoO iTLfuKeiffOai xard.
r6|y vdfioy koI tCw i<piKV€{o)fiiv(ay clt rb Upbv, \

*Av 8i ris ddtxei iv roi iepot ^ ^voi 1j Srffi6T\\rit, j^rifuoOrw & Upein
fJi^XP*- irirrc dpaxM^<ap \ Kvplun, Kal ivix^pa Xafi^opiru rw iiiffUiafi\ivov
Slv d* ixrlvet rb dpy^p^oyt rapedrros tow | Icpioi ififio.\{\)iTta els rbf
Brfaavpby,

AiKdl^€t\v 8i rbv lepia^ Ap tis ISlei ddiKrf$e2 1j r(a¥ ^\^vuv ^ rCnf
hiiJLvritav iv roi lepdif fiixp*^ rpidnf \ dpaxptiiay^ rd Si fiii^oya, ifxoi
,€Kd<TTOii al 8LK\ai ir roif vbfjMis tlprrireu, ivrovda yivitrOav.

UpoaKaKturOax di xol ab&ritiepbv irepL rOv i\v roi lepdi dSiKi&v,
dv Si b drrlSiKOS /li) ffvrx\\up€t^ els r^ Oarifn^v ^ dUri rekeUrdw.

*Eirap|xV Si diSovv rbfi fUWovra depairtieaOax v\vb toO Beov fiif
iXarrof ivreoPoXoO SoKlfiov dpy\vplov Kal ififidXXcLV els rb» OTfaavpbv
Trap€\b¥ros rod pecaKbpov

Korei>xe<r^oi 3^ rQp UpCw Kal iv^ rbv ^utfibv eVtn^ecV, 6raif
Trapci, rbv Upia, \ Srav Si /i^ rape?, rbv Biovray koX rei OwrUt
d'vrbv iavrdi Karei)x^0'^<M (KOffrov, rwv 8i Sif/iopicav rbv Upia. ir.r.X.
LG.S. i. No. 235; /./. No. 18 ; Hoffmann, iii p. 16.

c.

The Italic Dialects

[A complete account of all the Italic dialects and of their exist-
ing records has been given by von Planta in his Grammaiik d^r
oakiach'UmJbrischen DialekU (2 vols., Strassbarg, 1892, 1897), and
by Prof. R. S. Conway in The Italic DialeeU (2 vols., Cambridge.
1897). Mommsen's UiUeritcUiache DialekU (1850), though super-
seded for philological purposes by these works, remains a cL&sm
of research in Oscan. ZvetaiefTs Inaeriptumes Italiae itrferioris
(1886) is a cheap and accessible collection of the Oscan inscriptions.
The older grammatical works are out of date. Special points of
Oscan philology are treated in Bronisch's Dit oskisehm i vnd r
Vocals, and Buck's Der Voealism'Uf der osJcisehen Spraehe (18921
and Hie Oscan- Umbrian Verb- System (Chicago University Studies,
1895). Of the older accounts of Umbrian, Br^al's Les TabUs
EtLgubines (1875) and Biicheler*s Umbrica (1888) still remain f*t
value, the former more particularly for its admirable plates, the
latter for its commentary. But in Umbrian, even where the forms
are clear, interpretation is largely conjecture. For class > work,
a handy selection of inscriptions from all the dialects is Prof.
Conway's Dvalectorum Italicarum Exempla Selecta (Cambridge,
1899). The distinguishing characteristics given below will b^
found discussed at much greater length in von Planta's introdoc-
tory chapter. In the following account of the characteristics of
Oscan and Umbrian, the usual practice has been followed of
printing forms found in the native alphabets in ordinary trjv
forms found in the Latin alphabet in italics.]

657. The principal dialects of Italy which belong to the

THE ITALIC DIALECTS 569

same stock as Latin are Oscan and Umbrian. Oscan in the
widest sense of the tenn was the language spoken by various
peoples of Samnite origin, monuments of whom have been
found over a vast area extending from the borders of Latium
southward to Bruttium and northern Apulia. On the
northern frontier of this territory lived several tribes,
Paeligni, Marrucini, Marsi, Vestini, Volsci, Sabini, of whose
dialects some scanty remnants have survived. The Umbrians
inhabited the great district called by their name, which
extends from the shore of the Adriatic westwards across the
Apennines to the border of Etruria, and is bounded on the
north by the territory of the Qauls, on the south by that of
the Sabini and Vestini

658. The records of these dialects, except isolated words
or place-names, are entirely in the form of inscriptions. The
most important of the Oscan inscriptions are : (1) The
Tabula Bantina from Bantia, which lies some distance to the
S.E. of Venusia. It differs from the Oscan of other districts
by changing -tj^ into -^, di- into z- ; hence Bantia appears as
Bansa; sdcolo' a diminutive from die8 = & Latin ^dieculo-.
The document is of considerable length and deals with cer-
tain questions of local law. (2) The Ctppus AheUanus, which
contains a treaty regarding the privileges of the people of
Abella and the people of Nola in the use of a shrine of
Heracles. The Oscan of this monument is the most accurately
written which we possess. (3) The Tabtda Agnonensis found
some way to the N.E. of the ancient Bovianum in 1848.
This is a bronze plate originally fixed up in the neighbour-
hood of a temple and containing on its two sides a long list
of names of deities who had statues and altars there.
(4) Two lead tablets from Capua containing curses invoked
on enemies. Although the general drift is clear, much doubt
still exists with regard to the interpretation of individual
words and phrases. A considerable number of other inscrip-
tions have been discovered at Capua in recent years. (5) From
Pompeii come a certain number of short inscriptions which,
being mostly of an ephemeral character, probably date from
the last years of the city before its destruction in 79 a.d.
The date of the other documents is much disputed, the

570 APPENDIX C

authorities difering in some cases as much as two handled
years. Most of the inscriptions from Capua, however, date
from before 211 ac, when that citj, for having revolted to
Hannibal, was deprived of self-government, and the local
magistrate or meddtx tuticus ceased to exist The Tabuk
Bantina probably belongs to the early part of the first
century B.C., or the end of the preceding century. Thii
TabrUa Bantina is written in the Latin alphabet, the others
mentioned are in the native alphabet. There are also some
small inscriptions from the south of Italy and Sicilj in the
Greek alphabet

659. The Umbrian records are much more extensiTe
than those of any other dialect By far the most important
are the Eugubine Tables from the ancient Iguvium. These
tables are seven in number, all except iii. and iv. engraved on
both sides. The first four and the fifth to the seventh line
of the reverse side are in the ancient Umbrian alphabet, the
rest of Table v. and Tables vi. and vil are in the Latin
alphabet The date is uncertain. The tables in the
Umbrian alphabet are no doubt older than thoee in tht
Latin alphabet Tables vi. and vii. deal with the same
subject as Table i., viz. the purification of the fortress of
Iguvium, but in much greater detail. Biicheler places the
first four tables about a century before, the Umbrian part of
V. immediately before the time of the Gracchi. He wronld
assign the parts in the Latin alphabet to the period between
the Gracchi and Sulla, while Br^l places them as late as the
time of Augustus. The whole of these tables deal ^th &
sacrificial ritual and belonged originally to the priest Ij
brotherhood of the Atiedii at Iguvium. Other records or
Umbrian are small and unimportant

660. Oscan and Umbrian and the other small dialecu
form a unity distinguished from Latin and Faliscaii. by a
considerable number of characteristics in phonology, inflexion,
and syntax. There are some real but less important differ
ences between Oscan and Umbrian themselves. The difTerect
appearance of the forms of Umbrian as compared with Oscac
turns mostly upon the following changes in Umbrian
(1) change of all diphthongs into monophthongs ; (2) change

THE ITALIC DIALECTS 571

of medial -«- between vowels and of final ^ to -r ; (3) change
of -dr- between vowels into a sound represented in the
Umbrian alphabet by q (f, given by Conway as ^, in the
Liatin by r«; (4) palatalisation of gutturals in combination
with t and i — k into a sound represented in the Umbrian
alphabet by d ( = f)) iu the Roman by ^ or «, ^ into a |/-sound :
ta9ez ( = tacUut) 9imu (Hmo) from the same pronominal stem
as the Latin ciSf ci-tra ; muietu (participle), cp. mugatu
(imperat.), and later liuvinu- ( = Iguvino-) where earlier
Umbrian represents g hj k: Ikuvins ; (6) changes in com-
binations of (a) stops, 'fi- (representing in some cases original
"pt-) and 'kt- both becoming -ht-, and (6) of 'stops and spirants,
-ps- becoming -«•- (or -s-) : osatu ( = *opmtd), Latin operatOy
while in the combination of l-\-t the liquid is silent :
molar = *moltds gen. (Latin multae " of a fine ") ; (6) Umbrian
final d and generally also final t,f, s, and r disappear ; (7)
Umbrian changes u into t and -urn into -am,

661. On the other hand Oscan changes e and 6 into i and
il and develops in many words one or more anaptyctic vowels
in combinations of liquids with other consonants : sakaraklom
( = *8akro-Jdo-m) ; so in Paelignian sacaracirix ( = ^sacratrix).

662. The differences between these dialects on the one
side and Latin and Faliscan on the other are much more
numerous and important

A. Phonology

663. 1. To represent original q^, gv, Oscan and Umbrian
have p and b while Latin has qu (c) and v (gu after n).
pis = q^iis, biuo- = vivo-, beru = veru,

2. Sounds which became spirants in primitive Italic
remain so in Oscan and Umbrian while medially Latin
changes them to a stopped sound : alfo- = cUbo-, mefio- = medio-.

3. Syncope. Osc adud = agitod, factud =facitod ; hiirz
— horlits: Umbr. pihaz=jna^tM. Osc.teremnlss,Umbr.fratru8,
dat and abL pL with ending = primitive Italic *-foiy Lat. -bus.

4. Change of -kt- to -^, of -pU to -fU (Umbr. -hi-).

572 APPENDIX C

Oscan iJhtaviB = Octowi«, «jrt/i8a«=«cripte«; Umbr. petfe
= redt.

5. Assimilation.

(a) Of -nd- to -nn-; Osc. lipsannam = operaniam, Umtr.
pihaner =^ piandi,(h being inserted to avoid hiatus).

(6) Of -A» to -w (<) whether medially or finally : Osc
destrst = dextra eit ; Umbr. destrcL Osc meddiss = m^dix.

(c) But s is not assimilated before nasals and liquid.-
initially or medially : Osc. slaagi-, cp. locus ; Osc. flisna-, Oli
Umbr. fesna-, cp. /ant*-m. Paelign. prisma =|?rtnitt«.

(d) -r<- in Oscan becomes -rr-^ or -r- with oompensatorr
lengthening of the previous vowel, in Umbrian it appears a^
-r«- and -rf-, Osc. teer[i!im] once, Kerrl; Umbr. turgUu,
lerfe,

6. Treatment of final -ns and -rUs,

Indo-G. -7W = 08C. -M, Umbr. -/.• Osc. vla8S = t?uM, Uml^r.
cmf ( = *avi-7ii) " birds," nerf ( = *ner-7i») " men."

Osc. nom. sing. \xiiti\xi—*oUi5ni^ an analogical formation
with final -«, from a stem in 4%dnr; Umbr. zefef = «rf<*v
(-wis), -rw, however, in the 3rd pL with secondary ending
( = -n<) and -tw, which arises by syncope of a vowel between
-n- and -«, remain ; coisatens " curaverunt," BarUins =
Bantinus.

7. Original final d appears as o ; Osc. vlii, cp. via ; Uml».
prosesetOf cp. pro-secta.

B. Inflexion*

664. i. In the Noun :

1. The consonant stems retain the original nom. pi. in
-^, for otherwise the vowel could not disappear by syncope :
Osc. humuns = *honione8, meddiss = meddices, censtur = centarts,
Umbr. frcUeer =:frcUres.

2. Where Latin generalises analogically the strong form
of a consonant stem, Oscan and Umbrian generalise the weak
form. Thus from a stem *tangi^r^ we find Osc. ace tan^in-
om, abl. tangin-ud, Umbr. natine = natione. But in the nom,
Osc lilttiuf and also statlf. Cp. also Umbr. tLfUr-etie with
Lat. auctoT'itas,

3. The -0- and -o-stems retain the original form of the

THE ITALIC DIALECTS 573

nom. and geo. pL (the (f-stems also the old gen. sing.), and,
following a course exactly the reverse of Latin, have extended
these forms of the plural to the pronoun. Osc. statos = ziaii ;
moltcu, Umbr. TMtar^muUae; Osc. scriftas = tcriptcie. Osc
piis = gui^ Umbr. erom = *t»-mn " eorum.*'

4. The locative of -o-stems survives as a distinct case in
-«t, Osc. miilnlkei terei "in communi territorio" etc*

5. New analogical formations :

(a) in case-endings of consonant stems after -o-stems :
Osc. tangin-om (accX tangin-vd (abl.) ; Umbr. arsferturo = ac^
fertorem. But the Umbr. abL like the Latin ends in -e :
natine ;

(6) -eis the gen. of -i-stems is extended to consonant
and -o-stems : Osc. Appelluneis (ApoUinis), medikeis {meddicis),
tangineis ; Umbr. nomner, mcUrer ; Osc. Niumsieis (Numerii),
Piimpaiianeis {Pompeiani) : Umbr. popler {poptdi).

665. ii. In the Verb : -

1. Secondary endings in -d occur for the sing., in -ns for
the pluraL -d is found in old Latin alsa Op. the forms of
the perfect below (4).

2. The future instead of being as in Latin in -b- is in
-s- ; Osc. deiitast " iurabit^" Umbr. pru-pehast " principio
piabit"

3. All future perfects active are made from the perfect
participle (lost in Latin) and the substantive verb : Osc.
per-emugt " peremerit," Umbr. en-telust ( = *en4end-ltLst an ana-
logical formation from a stem *enrtendrlo-) " intenderit'*

4. Where Latin has perfects in -t;-, Oscan and Umbrian
show a great variety of forms :

(a) in -/- : Osc. aa-man-affed " faciundum curavit"

(6) in -t- : Osc. dadikatted " dedicavit"

(c) Osc. uupsens from a stem ^op-sd- with 3rd pL
secondary ending " operaverunt," Umbr. poriust from a stem
porta-,

{d) In Umbrian only appear perfects in -U and -n^,
entdwt " intenderit," comhifianH "nuntiaverit"; ? Osc. A.(o/ca-

K€tT.

5. The infinitive ends in -cm: Osc delk-um "dicere,"
ac-um " agere " ; Umbr. a{nyfer-o{m) " circumferre."

574 APPENDIX C

6. Imperatives are found :

(a) in -i?i^, pass. -nwJr. Osc. cvMomur "censcmk,
Umbr. persnimu " precamino." The origin of these fom^ i-
uncertain ; von Planta conjectures that -m- in the suffix d:;
represent original -mn- by assimilation.

(6) In Umbr. the plural of the imperative act. is four
in *-Wttf, of the deponent possibly in *-m<?nMf ; etutu, r»r.:
" eunto," armanm " ordinamini." There is no example n
Oscan.

7. In the passive -tr is found as the suffix by the side ■ '
-or and in Umbrian -ur. Osc. sakarater = Lat. socro^ur.

8. The perf. conj. and 2nd future play a large pcurt in u-
passive : Osc sakrafir " let one dedicate," Umbr. pikoLU '
"let one purify"; Osc. comparcucvster [ioc egmo'] "es :-
consulta erit"

9. Verbs in hI- make their participles in -eto- ; cp. La:
Latin rogUua, probitus.

A. OsCAN

(1) The Cippua Abellanus. The text is ZvetaieflTs, ::•
interlinear translation Biicheler's.

Maiiiii Vestirikiiui Mai. Sir. | prupukid svemict^

Maio Vegtricio Mat(JUitut) Sir,
kvaistu|rei AbellaniU Inim Maiiii[i] | Iiivkiiiif MaL Piil

qv4iestori AheUano et Maio lovicio Mai(Jl) i*t.

latiii I medlkel deketasidi Niivl[a|ni!Li] inim ligatdis A"^-
lato medici Nolano et Isgatis A'*^

l[aniil8] I inim ligatiiis Niivlamils | piis senateis tanginu.

lanis d Ugatis Nolanis, qui senati sentenit*

suveis putiinispid llgat[ii8] | fufans ekss kiimbened | sakar.

8ui virique Ugati erarU, ita convenit : ^■

kliim Hereklels | slaagid piid ist inim teer[iim] | pud ^
crvm Herculis e regione qwod est * et terrUorium quod a}
eisiid sakarakliid [ist] | pdd anter teremniss eh... | ist :a

id eacrum est quod inter terminoa ex. . . es(« ^i»

THE ITALIC DIALECTS 575

teremenniu mu[iiilkad] | tanginiid pniftiiBet r[e]itiid] amniid

UrmvML communi gententia probata sunt recto circuitu,

puz idlk 8akara[kldm] | Inim idik tenim n)iilni[ki!im] | miil-

ut id sacrum et id territorium commune in com-

nikei terei fusid [inim] | eiseis eakarakleis i[iiiiu] | terels
muni terrUorio essetf et eiiis sacri * et territorii

fruktatiuf fr[ukta|tiuf] miiinikii piitiiri!i[mpid | fii8]id. avt

frudus fructus communis utrorumque esset, Nolani
Niivlanu . . . | . . . HerekleiB fiifsn. . . | . . . ] iispid Ndvlan . . . | iipv

auttm Herculis fan

Ii8at?...{ {ekknm [svai pid hereset] | triibarak-

Item si quid volent aedificare

[aviim terei piid] | liiniiti!i[m] term[. . .piiis] { Herekleia liisnii
in terrUorio quod limitum quibvs Herculis fanum

mefi[u] I ist eh trad feihiiss pii[8] | Herekleia fiisnam amfr|et
medium est, extra fines qui Herculii fanum cmJbiunt^
pert viam piisetist | pai ip ist piistin slagim { senateis suveis
trans viam post est quae ibi est, pro regione senati sui
tangi|niid tribarakaviiin lijkitud. inim iiik triba|rakkiuf pam
sententia aedificare liceto. Et id aedifvcium^ quod
Niivlaniis | tribarakattuset inim | liittiuf Ndvlaniim estud. |

Nolani aedificaverint, et usus Nolanorum esto,

ekkum svai pid Abellands | tribarakattuset iiik tri|barakkiuf

Item si quid Ahellani aedificaverint id cudifidum
inim i!iittiuf | Abellaniim estud. avt | piist feihiiia piis fifmam

et v,sus Ahdlanmum esto. At post fines, qui fanum
am|fret eisei terei nep Abeljlaniis nep Niivlands pi-
ambiurUy w eo tenitorio neque Abellani neque Nolani quid-
dum I tribarakattins* avt the|8avn!un piid esei terei
quam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qv^ in eo territorio
ist I piin patensins : m\linikad ta[n]|giniid patensins inim
est quom aperirent: communi senterUia aperirent et

pid e[sei] | thesavrei piikkapid eh[8tit|a]ittiiim alttram
qwidquid in eo thesauro quandoque exstcU portionvm alteram
alttr[iis I hjerrins. avt anter slagim | [AJbellanam inim

alteri caperent. At inter regionem Abelhmam et
Niivlanam | [pjiillad viii umvii ist tedur | [e]isai viai mefiai

Nolanam qua via flexa est inea via media

teremen|[n]iii staiet
termina slant.

576 APPENDIX C

prapiikid=j>r0|M(C0 (Biich.) ; if so it must be a different g7»2r
like ^'irf\ and fa^ma. sverranei, apparently some sort of tnl-
(fetiali, Conway), deketasiuf according to Broniscli = dficnOar.
from dM^m.

(2) The third of the six surviving clauses of the Tabil*
Bantina. The text and translation are Biicheler's as given by
Mommsen in Bruns' FofniL^ Ivris Romani Antiqui (6th ed .
p. 61.

Svaepis pru meddixud altrei castrovs avti eituaa | zicol •-_
"' Stquis pro magistratu dUeri fundi avit pecuniae (ft'r*.
dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pon op tovtad pet
dixeritj is comitia ne haimerU nisi cum apud poptdum qi. :
rupert urust sipus perum dolom | mallom, in ^iitnzL

ter oraverU sciens sine dolo malo et d^ni^n'
zico[lom] tovto peremust petiropert Neip mais pomt:-

diem popultu perceperit quater. Neve magis quinqi* -.
com preivatud actud | pro ter pam medicatinom dideet. ii
cum privato agito prius quam iudicaiiowfm daJbit, c
pon posmom con preivatud urust, eisucen ziculud | zicol ::
cum postremum cum privato oraverit^ ab eo die di^r-

XXX nesimum comonom ni hipid. Svaepis contmd ese:
XXX proximum comitia ne haJlyueriL Siquis contra ky-
fefacust, ionc svaepis { herest meddis moltaum licitnd, azs-
fecerity eum siquis volet magistratus multare liceto, dh.r
pert mistreis aeteis eituas licitud.
taxat minoris partis pecuniae liceto.

m

hipidy subj. from perfect stem = *Ae^. trulum acoording t-
Bugge=4tb, from a weak stem *qtru-(0; If urust is from ti'
same root as Lat oro, (1) it mast be borrowed from Latin, or -
neither word can be connected with Liat. os^ there being l
rhotacism in Oscan. op (=Lat ob) governs the ablative. Ir
line 4 the punctuation should probably be peremust. Petiropert
neip, etc, op. Conway, LD. ii. p. 608 n.

(3) From Pompeii. Now in the Museum at Nap>
(Zvetaieff, p. 51, Mommsen, U.D. p. 183, Conway, IJl '.
p, 60).

THE ITALIC DIALECTS Vl*l

V. Aadirans V. eitiuvam paam | vereiiaf Piimpaiianal
VibiusAdiranvjs V. (/.) peciiniam quam civitati(J) Pompeianae
tristaa|mentud deded, eisak eltiuvad | V. Yiinikiis Mr.

testamento dedity ea peciinia V. Vinidus Marae (/.)
kvalsstur Piimpjaiians triibdm ekak kumben{iiieis tanginud
quaestor Pompeianus aedificium hoc conventus sententia
lipsannam | deded, Isldum priifatted.
operandum dedit ; idem probavit

The meaning of vereiial is uncertain ; possibly a guild rather
than the corporation of the town is meant.

B. Umbrian

The text and translation of both passages are Biicheler's
(Umbrica, 1883).

1. In the Latin alphabet, from Table VI. a (Conway, I.D.
p. 422. 8) ; part of the directions for purifying the citadel
of Iguvium.

Verfale pufe arsfertur trebeit ocrer peihaner, erse stah-
Templum vhi flamen versatur arcis ptandae, id sta-
mito eso tuderato est : angluto | hondomu, porsei nesiniei
tivum sic finitum est : ab angulo imo qui proxume

asa deveia est, auglome somo, porsei nesimei vapersus
ab ara divorum est^ ad angulum summum qui proxume ab seUis
aviehcleir | est, eine angluto somo vapefe aviehclu tod-
auguraXihus est, et ah angulo sammo ad sellas augurales ad
come tuder, angluto hondomu asame deveia todcome |
urbicum finem, ab angulo imo ad aram divorum adurbicum
tuder. eine todceir tuderus seipodruhpei seritu.
finem. et urbicU finibus utroquevorsum servato.
2 P

578 APPENDIX C

2. In the Umbrian alphabet ; from Table II. a (CTmirwa,
p. 138 ; Conway, LB, p. 415).

Asama kuvertu. asaku vinu sevakni tagez per-
iled amm reveriito. apudaram vino soUemni tacUtis sup-
snihmu. | esaf posme herter, erus kuveitu tedtu. vinu
plicdto, ipse quern oportety ertts congerito data. vinuM

pune tedtii. | struhglas fiklas sufaiias kamaltu. kapide
poscam dato. struiculae JUillae suffafiae commolUo. capitfe
punes vepuratu. { antakres kumates persnibmu. amparihmu,
poscae restinguito. integris commolitis supplicato, surgito
statita Bubahtu. esunu purtitu futu. katel asakn
statuta deniittito. mcrum porrectum esto. coUulus apud aram

pelsans futu. | Kvestretie usage svesu vuv^ stit«-

peUandus esto. Qtiaesturae annuae suum votufn stiit-

teiee.

rint.

The most noticeable point in these extracts is the large number
of post-positions: anglu-to; anglom-e^n), asam-e{n\ todcom-e[n\
etc. ; asam-a(d) ; asa-ka(m). In e^se, por8ei=id-if pod-i an enclitii.
appears, vapersus v. Planta conjectures = lapvdibus with I changing
to j^ ems occurs 23 times ; meaning and derivation are uncertain.
It may be connected (1) with ais- a root found in most of the
Italic dialects, Umbr. esono- (esunu below) =c2mni», (2) with rxK*-t
of Grermane/ir^;'' honour, "ae«-^t77ta^io. Kuveitu =e(moe^ito. pelsans
means sepeliendv^ (BUch. ). The meaning of usa9e is very uncertain,
vuvfi possibly parallel to a Latin *vomciu$.

D.

The Earliest Latin

666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the
inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a smaU
broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Camilium at the
N.W. comer of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly
in the official Notizie degli Scavi (from the photog^phs in which the
facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con-
siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar Ls lost, no
restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides
Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the Notizie^ an attempt to
restore the complete sense of the inscription has been made by Dr. A.
Enmann, Bulletin de V Academic JmpMUe des Sciences de St. Peters-
hourgj December 1899. Comparetti {Jscrizione Arcaica del Foro
Romano, 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription.
Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in
Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon
the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though
Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares (Jahrbuch d, k.
deutschen arch, InstitutA, 1900, pp. 1 ff.), that Comparetti's facsimile
must henceforth form the basis of research.

Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in-
scription deals with the functions of the rex. It is more probable that
the rex referred to is the rex sacr&rum, than that the inscription goes
back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest
official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at
Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left,
MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is stUl older. The
position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most
authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the
Gauls in 890 b. c. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious
method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down
again {powrrpwpn^iiv) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier.
'Fhe alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek :
K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some-
times by V, sometimes by Y.

667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where
clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice-
able : —

i. a. Intervocalic « is not yet rhotacised : ESBD = m^.

h. Unaccented e has not yet become % : bsbd.

c. ^ has not yet passed into u : ho[nce]=Aw»c.

d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : rbobi=

regu

e. oi has not yet become I : QUOi = ^^.

/. Original eu has already become ou : iouxMENTA=tKin€nto.
ii. a. 8AKR0S is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin
with -roe not changed to er : sacer,

b. iODXMENTA = *y«jf^-*-wm-^ where the -a- maybe a relic of

the stem seen in j^evyos. With the formation otherwise
cp. the Greek pi. j^i&Ynara.

c, lOUESTOD is possibly the older form of the ablative iusto.

rrr 'E

o

9

r

>

o

w
o

O

w
o

>

:j

o

usaiAv

D.

The Earliest Latin

666. The accompanying facsimile and transliteration represent the
inscription on the four sides and one of the bevelled edges of a small
broken pillar found under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the
N.W. comer of the Roman Forum in May 1899. Published promptly
in the official NotizU degli Scavi (from the photog^phs in which the
facsimile here is taken) it has already become the subject of a con-
siderable literature. As probably more than half the pillar is lost, no
restoration of the sense can be more than an approximation. Besides
Ceci's elucidation of the inscription in the Nbtizie, an attempt to
restore the complete sense of the inscription has been made by Dr. A.
Enmann, Bulletin de VAcademie Impiriale des Sciences de St. Peter s-
bourgj December 1899. Comparetti (Iseriziont Arcaica del Foro
Romanoj 1900) has given us a large facsimile of the inscription.
Enmann's attempt, however, hardly satisfies the conditions, and in
Comparetti's facsimile are several letters which I cannot recognise upon
the plaster cast of the inscription to which I have had access, though
Hiilsen, who has studied the original, declares (Jahrbuch d, k.
deutschen arch, InstitutA, 1900, pp. 1 ff.), that Comparetti's facsimile
must henceforth form the basis of research.

Whatever the precise meaning, it is tolerably clear that the in-
scription deals with the functions of the rex. It is more probable that
the rex referred to is the rex aacrorum than that the inscription goes
back to the time of the kings. This is in any case by far the oldest
official document in Latin, although it is likely that the fibula found at
Praeneste in 1887 with the inscription running from right to left,
MANIOS : MED : FHE : FHAKED : NVMASIOI, is still older. The
position of this pillar and the pottery accompanying it have led most
authorities to refer it to a period not later than the invasion of the
Gauls in 390 B. c. The characteristics of its alphabet and the curious
method of writing from the base of the column upwards and down
again {^ovarpwprrjbhv) justify us in dating it perhaps a century earlier.
'Fhe alphabet is still practically the alphabet of Chalcidian Greek :
K, C, P, R have Greek forms and values ; Lat. V is represented some-
times by V, sometimes by Y.

667. Amidst much which is uncertain (the punctuation marks where
clear seem often unmeaning), the following linguistic points are notice-
able : —

i. a. Intervocalic s is not yet rhotacised : BSED=m^.
h. Unaccented e has not yet become i : esbd.

c. 6 has not yet passed into u : ho[nce] = Ai*wc.

d. ai in the dative of consonant stems has become ei : BBaBi =

regl,

e. oi has not yet become i : QUOi = gw.

/. Origuial eu has already become ou : lOTJxvnwi&.^iumenta.
ii. a. BAKBOS is the first form discovered from a -ro- stem in Latin
with -ro8 not changed to er : sacer.

b. i0UXMBNTA = *ye|^^-«-wn-^ where the -s- may be a relic of

the stem seen in j^evyos. With the formation otherwise
cp. the Greek pi. ^ei>7/Mira.

c. I0UB8T0D is possibly the older form of the ablative iusto.

INDICES OF WORDS

The references are to sections unless p. is prefixed. Where several
references occur, they are separated by commas ; a point between two
numbers, as 337. 8, indicates that the second number is a sub-section.

I. Greek Index

d-(neg.)106iii., 157

dyafiai 480 g

&y€ 517

dyeipofiev (subj.) 609, 511

hdyev {Ayeiv) 629 b

dy^paoTot 378

Ayes 520 n.

dy4Tu 519

Ayim 402

dyv(it 347

dyvurros 378

Ayofiev 480 6

dy6s 261

Aypios 402

dyp6v 386

dyp6s 100, 147, 159

dyxtffTivos 166, 399

dyXbf 150

dyu 261

dy{i>votp 633 iL h

dyibvovs (dat. pi.) 628 a

dyu>tf(ra»s 640 i. a

dddKpvTOs 878

dddfuirot 154

ddeXtpiSovi 380

dde\06f 140 &

dSiKiyra 618 ii. (2

&5firiT(» 154

Ae/xra 230

AitrxpiivSas 625 i. e

d^dvaros 220

'A^iJi'aiVE 118 a

'AdTfyou 313 n. 1

*Aeii¥ri<n 322

a2 325 ii.

al (if) 342

A^YiyoUayf 640 i. a

alBQ 808

albi^n 295, 351

eOei 34 n. 2, 312, 337. 8

alh 34 n. 2, 312, 337. 8

oXdot 174

oT^oi 261

alKoi 218

afXo)!' (gen. pi.) 620 i. d

dL<r<ria 487 h

al<rxi(a» 352 n. 2

A/<rxt/Xof 268

a/<^ 172, 361

dLKtufea 376

dKcpciKbfait 184

'AirovAiey6s 268

dicoi/irait (n. ptcp. ) 624 i./

dicoi}(rayr6v (nom. pi.) 645

ii. b
*AKpdyarra 273
Axpot 261 n. 1
dicr/j 360

AtcTup 356

dX7cii'6f 216

dXTVcre (subj.) 609

dXv/fan' 352 n. 2

dXdaivb;485

dXdo/xeu 485

dXe76ty&t 216

dXiyta 234

dXe/^c; 230

dXiJ^eia 374

d\0alv(a 485

AXSoftai 485

dX^iT/coAuu 483 a

dXiCT^p 188

dXXd 341

dXXodar6s 286, 326 i.

dXXot 187, 218

iXoffJLfSyri 194, 364

dXf 142, 289

AXffos 184

dX(^( 349

d/M 106 iii., 166, 259 iv.,

314, 338. 11, 841
dfioXS^vta 485
dfiaX6s 230

dfjMpau {ii/iepQv) 629 i. a
dfjLdproiv 462
dAi/3Xi^f 230
AfippoTos 206

582

INDICES OF WORDS

ifjxi^ 140 a, 230
d/A€l^erai (subj.) 509
dtUKyia 137, 148, 230
hlUv 045 ii. h
dfi/jbi 329
Afifief 624 i. e
dfifjLos 330
dAO'6$p.l33n. 2,180n.2.

396
d^ 132, 337. 7, 341
AfJupl^XrfffTpw 392
dfi^iyvvfu 481 «
d/i0<s 323
dfitpopcijs 228
dft0w 297, 329

dir243

dy 559, 562, 566, 639 b

Ava 307

dtfd 337. 7, 341

di^aTyXXw 624 i. e

dvayeypdifxnifTai 643 ii.

dfaypai/njffeT 492

di^aXrof 485

Apo^ 306 n. 1

dya^ {Tpu)€ff(ri») 337. 5 a

di»d<r<retv {'Apyei) 337. 4 a

di'are^^ 559

difSdtfta 481 e

dvdpdrodov 282

dvdptloi 402 n. 2

d(v)5/)fa(i')rav 620 ii. b

dvSpiKin 382

dvSp6T7js 369 n. 1

d¥Bpwf>6voi 282

dydpt^v 361 n. 1

dv^SeiKC 625 i. ^

dve/iof 169, 393

&P€v 278

dyevf 278

dv^X<'M<M 445

drfivode 216 n. 3, 550

dyt^p 344 n. 1

dvri 133, 159, 337. 8, 341

AirrXop 391

dvTpoxov {dydpitnrw) 645

i. (2
d^wf (subst.) 186, 392
dir243

dxdKKoTfHUfolrj 630 c
Axayaaif 640 i. a

dra^ 259 iv.
drci 518 n.
driirrvaa 552 iii.
drX6of 156
dir6 341, 394
drod6d6av^t 625 ii.
diroFcLirdeeo 645 i. d

dTToBviQiTKU) 544

diro/cpiJ^ei (subj.) 509
dtrofiipyvvfu 238
dirorfyocay 633 i. a
dTiJ 618 i. c, 624 i. ^
dTwrr^XXavTos 623 i. g
dpa^OXai 216
dpaplvKut 549 ii.
dpdffffta 230
dp^tfXai 216
dp7iJ0eoi 377
dpyvipoi 377
dpei$6irapos 285
dpTfitcrdfiepof 285
dprjl^Tot 285
dpvfli/HXot 285
dp^y 358
d/)i7pe 549 ii.
dfH<TT€p6s 387
dpuTTcibFovra 643 i. 6
dpKrrot 394
d/w6« (gen.) 358
dpvvfuu 481 £
dpcrrfip 355
dporpoy 388
dp6(tf 159
dpiro^ 350
dp/n;^ 205
dpcn^f 205
dprlJs 372
dpxij 382
dpxt'c6s 382
dpxofiAL 545
dpx<^i'TO{f 628 a
dpxbf 552 ii.
dj(=lws) 650
dfffievos 188
d<r<ra 54
d<rre/i0i}s 185

diTT^VOiCTOJ 378

do-rettf; (gen.) 371
do-n/c&t 382
d<rTv 372, 382

drdp 341

dre 342

dHfi^Ofuu 481 <2

drcp 341

dT/«Jr 369 n. 1

*ATp€l8ao p. 278 n. 1

drra 54

aixvova (dXicin>ra) 645 i. f

aO^dpto 177, 481 <r

a6^<a 481 e, 482 6

adffoi (dXo-os) 646 L /

aOrolocp ( = a&roa^) 633 ii. ^

aOroii (dy^pdo-tv) 338. 1 ^

aOroiiri 624 i. a

ai)r6/iaro$ 259 v.

airrds (subst.) 277

a^6t 325 ii.

aiiu 261

aikas 181 (4)

d^fyoj 216, 370 n. 2

dipiiaKa 260

d^ (dAi^) 120

d0rec6$ 216

d<t>(fTj%2

dxOrjd(iiP 357

dxXi^d) 487 e

d^341

/3ddos 359

/3a£vw 18, 63, 140 a, 156,

205, 207, 487 a, 545
/3dXXw 140 6, 207, 548 n. i
/3aX« (fut.) 492
/3ayd 140 a, 193, 291
/SdpaTxw 216 '

pdpaSpop 140 5 I

^p^apos 131, 288 I

^apvdfupoi 206 |

/ScurtXdet 633 i. a |

/Sao-iXeios (gen.) 623 i. r ,
^aaCXim 309 ■

/ScuriXci^i 552 iu I

/ScuriXeeJi 306, 365 I

paaiXe^€pop 387
/SeuriXei^b; 487 c
/3o<riX^wy 227, 309, 365
/SatriX^i 313

iScuTiX^ot 227, 309, 365
/9d<rcs 357
pdffKw 142, 483 a |

I

/. GREEK INDEX

583

^^t\KQ. 404, 495

^^\a4>a 496

/3€/3XiJaTat 472

P^^XVKa 495

^epovXevaeai 549 i.

^€^piea<rLv 549 i.

pi^pwKa 495

^eiXofiai 140 ^

^Xifivov 400

/3A\6trc( (3 s. subj.) 623
i. cf

^Wo/ML 140 6

/S^i/^os 359

/3^ /377 121

^i^fHbcKciv 63

fiL^pibiTKu) 483 ^

/3tos 140 c

i3X(£f 230

^XaffifnjfieTv 9

/SXiJerat 511

/966 315

/3otJ62

/36^pos 263

/SotwrOj (dat. pi.) 625
i.d

^dWofiai 140 b

(ioXofjMi, 140 &

Boped&rjs 380

iSocTKiJ 381

j»6(r«ca; 381, 483 a

poij^fHOffTis 20 n. 1

^ovXedeadcu 549 i.

povXcvffaro (hath de-
vised) 552 iv.

fiovXi/da 20 n. 1

^ovXofMi 140 6, 220

/SoOj 18, 63, 140 a, 181
(6), p. 224, 281, 289

Ppdyx<K 216

/3pdicea 624 i. c

^pd<Tffw 206

/?pi?/*w 206, 378

/:ipi^a 624 i. c

(i^pidu) 485

/ipovrTj 378

/3por6$ 206

^p6(a 206

/3payri/f 372

fiibXo fMi 140 6

/Swj' 181 (6)

ydXa 216, 295, 306 n. 1
y4 113. 2, 328 i., 342
7/70M«'31,32,48,269v.,

494
yeycvTjfUvos 268
7^ova31, 32, 48, 259v.,

494
yeydtfafietf 48
yey6tf€i» (inf.) 647 ii. 6
y€yo»4vai 526
yiypafifuu 496
yeypd^Tcu 472, 496
7^pa^ac 466
y4yp6.ypoiKu 492
y4yiav€ 550
7^X(u/u 51

7Agus (2 sing.) 624 ii. a
76Xai<ras (gen.) 624 i. /
y€vefi p. 224, 384
y€P€ri$iv 338. 6 6
7^i'€0j 31, 142
yiv€<rit 28

yhrfrai (=can be) 559
yimjrai (interrog.) 560
yivotrv 620 i.
yivoi 31, 137, 142, 163,

p. 224. 251, 259 v.,

288, 351
yivvi 161, 371
y€palp<a 487 c
yipavoi 141* ii.
yipa's 295, 351
yipiov 50, 351, 362
7€iJw 178, 259 iii.
7^55
yyfiiia 485
7^pat 351

yiyvopufu 137, 259 v., 494
yiyvbpxBQ. 267, 480 (2
yiyvilxFKia 14, 137, 483 6,

549 i.
7/^1^701 618 i. /
yiyofjuu 120
yXaKTo<l>dyot 216
7Xauic6f p. 225
7XaO( p. 225
7Xoi6t 141* ii.
yXvK^ 196
7^1^$ 511
yFtaOi 518

71'wa'tf 357

ypUHDffl 511

76^100$ 132

76i'ojl63n.3,251, 259v.
y^v 137, 371
7ouv6j 220
ypd^dTjv 185

ypafiftaTlddoyros 625 i. /
ypaur^ 185

ypd^s (ace. pi.) 624 i./
ypdipofiev 480 0
7P<£0(.; 185, 496, 545
ypdifMaiffi 624 i. /
7/)o0ciJt 479
7pd0o$ 479
yvfjLpdSdofuu 637 i. c
7t/ya</cef 635
yvir^ 140 c

dai^p 355

daiddXXa; 446

5aiSi&(r(rc<r$au, 178

dcUw 484

ddKvw 481 &

8(Upv 100, 134, 373

ddKpvficL 373

da/ii^T/f 511

8afu(by0(a (3 pi. imperat. )

625 ii.
Sdfufrifu 481 a
dapMs {drjfios) 121
ddvot 263
ddpais 153, 287
da/>r6s 31
5o(rjJ$ 157
dariofuu 484
davX6f 213
ded^^ofuu (flit.) 555
^$i7Xa 496
deSoUta 643 ii.
d^dop/ra 31, 32
de86<r0€ip 623 ii. a
Z€Z{tK€iv (inf.) 643 ii.
d^dw/ca 446
de/dta 650
Mkpv 517
Mxvvtuu 447
«€ficyi;/u 51, 105, . 134,

447, 453, 481 e
d€lKvvffd(u 526

584

INDICES OF WORDS

deucw^to 61, 453
d€i\aKpl<av 360 u. 1
delXofuu 140 6
6 decya 237, 325 ii.
detyls 248
dei^tu (imper.) 522
d€?^( (inf.) 526, 528
d€^at/u 513
Selkeiop 513
5ef|ctaf 513
de£(ec6 513 •
dcikov 522
Sef^o; 492, 503
Wx^«j624i./
^^a 136, 161, 416
dixa iTTd 418
dcKdi-oi 487 e
diKas 347, 419
de/car^rope; (ace. ) 630 ii. b
UKarot 435
iiKTO 502
d^XXctf 140 h
SeX^Klvrf 399
d^X0a{ 140 b
' $eX0<s 360
dcX0t^ 140 6
8^/ias( = like) 283
^Atu;148
d4p€0pop 140 &
S^pjceai 31
S4pK€iT$e 31
84pK€Tai 31
d^pKOfJuu 31, 32
d^/>ai31
S^inroiya 207
3e<nr6ri7? 188, 219, 248,

309
dei^repos 428
dciJo; 624 1. e

84xofMi (with dat) 337. 4
difXofiM 140 5
di7Xov6rc 56
di/XoDre 121, 122
Si7X6(tf 172
did 341

d/aira 140 c n., 376
didXoYOf 281, 282
SiaireiroXefjLiflireTai 546 n. 1
Sia4>S€ip€ffK0p 483 a
5idd<rir(u 188, 483 b

dldoftai 447

d/do/i€r 480 e

di8&if(u 543

$/8o<rai 466

8l8ov 517

dfdcu^i 518

dl8ufu 27, 52, 191 n. 2,

263, 447, 480 e
Sa 623 i. 0
Aif f 54
Aif 6$ 54

^^^7Auu 447, 480 c
dUaddiv (inf.) 645 i. b
SiKddoi 633 i. b
SUaiot 402 n. 2
SiKa<rT6\oi 188
diKeiy 381
«f/ci7i/ 333. 7
St^foros 118
Atoi'i/o'oe 625 i. d
5i6<rdoTos 116. 2 6, 118 a,

284, 285
A(O0-«ro/><dao 626 a
Ai^Kovpoi 284
diTOus 408
SliTTv^ p. 224
d/f 408
dlffKos 381
d/0pos 259 vi.
SoF4vai 361, 526 n. 1
SoSai {5o0i) 633 i. a
doltjv 512
doiAiey 174
doKl/Juafu 51
doX06s 140 &

S6fi€iv (inf.) 51, 647 ii. a
ddfiey 51, 312, 527
d^AKvai 209, 311, 526
Mfiriv 527

S6fMs 148, 163, 294
dd^a 351, 384
566t (i-(tf6s) 645 i. b
dopd 31
8op«rdf 31
8^ 520
d6r«pa 374
donfip 263, 355, 374
9or6f 253 n., 263
doDXof (with ace.) 333.

6a

8ovpai209, 311,361,52-,

543
8ovp&t 220
doOs 362
8pdy/ia 185
dpar6t 31
apaxMi^ 185
Spdto 487 a
8p€irdpri 299
dp^rarov 299
dpo^(^ 479
bpbftjot 479
8p6(ros 65
dpvT 294

BvFopoi 526 n. 1
S^cL/iat 481 a
di^afuu (subj.) 510 n. 1

511, 645 ii. e
SOytafAOt 511
di^o 408

SuodeKaFerla 645 L ^
Swrfiepeh (as sec.) 818
Svfffiet^h 351
Bvapuor/it 351
5i^<rofuu (subj.) 559

Wo; 134, 297, 326 i., i'lr

dojde/ca 408, 417

diote ( =i"w^ subj. ) 625 L;

du)pa ( = 3wpor) 299 (5) '

Supedv 333. 7 c

diopw 263

dan^p 356

durr^yi; 360

dun-if 27, 263, 360

Stjhup 295, 355

^ 328 ii.

i (il) 629 i. b

fa 501

fo (cfi;) 633 i. a

idXtav 445

^apur6$ 398

ioffffa 157, 363

^/SaXi^y 480 a, 500

f/SaXor 479

i^ 480 a

ifiaffC\€wr€ 552 IL

€fiS€/Mi» 482 n. 1

ipBifi-ffKWTa 482 n. 1

/. GREEK INDEX

585

ipSofn/fKOfTa 422, 432 n.

^^dofioi 216, 432

Ifiriv 280, 479, 480 a, 500,

545
f^rrrc 158
e^\d(mfKa 446
^jSpaxe 206
iyiytavc 550
^yi'CTo 259 V.
iyevdfitiv 543
^yi'oy^o 623 i. a
eyiyvdfMTff 543
iyKaTom-fA^aaoi (inf. ) 640

i. 6
iyKU)iuov 398
^yw 552 i.
^vwiT^i/t p. 422 n. 1
(ypa<pov 4/9
(ypaapae 643 i. a
^7a> 113. 2, 161, 327, 328
^wf 328 i.

^Set^a 462, 482 a, 502
^deiiafiev 464
^d«|as 502
^dfi^e 502
^5776(6$ 162
iSrjT^s 372
65iaa^a 503
i5i5o<ro 474
ididovv 548 iii.
ibiKairaav 640 ii. a
e56^>7 474
^56^i;y 280, 474
^do^i/f 474
nofioL 492, 509, 545
?5o$ 55, 366
iboOKa€fi { = f5<ifKav) 623

L e
npaKov 31. 32, 151, 479
npatiov 479
^5pai' 480 a

ibv(T€TO 503

^5a;«ca 495
i€bva 231
^f/Koo-i 231
ilUtap 485
^(^pcrr; 231
«?f 6s 330
^ofiax 142
?fw 259 i.

iBww 141 &

iOdpaifffe 552 ii.

f^/ca 135, 495

€l 325 Yiii., 342

c/deli7i' 493 n. 1, 513

€l8ttfi€v 166

€t8cff0ai 526 n. 2

€t8o¥ 543

cid^a 584

c^ddrof (gen.) 353, 534

elSvia 534

eldiSiKKLov 390

e/dt^^ 164, 353, 534

ctrjfjifp 512

efiyy 512

€tris 142

crjcoo-i 315, 420

eUwrrSs 437

e/X^Xou^o 179, 216, 477 .

€(\ri<pa 185

erXxof 212, 445

ctfieiy (inf.) 51, 647 ii. a

elfUv 184

€lid 184

el/u 480 a, 544, 547 ii.

elvvfu 481 6

€lo 328 iii.

elira 480 e

6/W 517 n. 1

ctiria (interrog.) 560

elirias (interrog.) 560

erT|^rt( = fut.)561

€lir6firiv 445

elroir 480 e

elpyal^6fi7jf 445

etj 205, 219, 247, 248,

624 i./
€f? 219, 259 iy., 407
cIfl 480 a
67<r/cb; 483 b
€Ur'<ppes 520 n. 1
cfrts 325 vi.
^k323

iKa$cj^6firfP 445
iKar&i^ 104, 423
iKti 325 v., 325 viii.
ixeipos 325 v.
^KeX<ra 184
iKcpaa 184
?«iyXoi 277

^xia^w 485

(kXvop 548

iKfirpfos 188

iKovffav (^x^vo'ay) 645 i.

a, c
iK6pe<ra 481 e
iKOpiffOris 504
Ijc/Hi'a 220, 503
(KTafuv 494
iienffjuu 446, 552 ii
^KTifadfirfif 552 ii.
iKTova 494
^icrof 188, 481
^jn-6f 309, 354
^iirv/}6f 201
f/c^pef 520 n. 1
#Xa/3oy 185
iXd^ay 521
^XaZa 161
Aoioi^ 161
fXaKov 483 a
Acur<rovof (gen.) 352
i\d(r<r<a (ace.) 352
iXdaauy 197
Aa^j 377
iXdxurros 343, 852
Aax«}j 141 c, 197, 281
iXdofML 485
A670I' 479
iX€l4>eTfp 448
^X^<n-w (^X^o-^w) 629 i. c
iX€(f$€pop 386
iXevB^pws 645 i. c
iXi^Otpos 231
AciVo/MU 179, 216
A^^ 517 n. 1
^X/in/v 480 a
Aiiroi' 479
iXXd 390
Air^i-w 485
AtIs 348
Au(ra 142
iX^ffOP 635
A(^pios 161
e/Mit/roD 328 iii.
i/Ji^ 827, 328 ii.
f/ieiya 184, 206, 219
ifuTo 328 iii.
fficyya 205, 624 i. e
4fUo 328 iii.

586

INDICES OF WORDS

itUta 169, 480 g

fflLKTO 502

(fifiev 51, 623 ii. a

ifjLol 328 T.

^m6s330

ifim) 328 iii.

ifjLovs 328 iii.

iv 149, 247, 837. 7, 841

ii^ i = €ls) 62S c

h 166, 407

haros 415, 434

iySediWK&ra 140 c. n.

^i^de/ca 417

fm/ia 184, 205, 219

fvt/jLfM 205, 624 i. c

iveviJKOvTa 422

(y€poi 386

iv€^vLa(ro€¥ 623 i. e

iirffv^xd 496

ff^a 314 D. 1

A^^ci^ 314 n. 1

^v06v {{KBibv) 643 i. e

^/341

hUa. 548 ii.

ivunres 520 ii. i.

^I'v^a 415

^nr^a 638 i.

(vv€ir€ 139 a

(iufvfu 481 0

^i^curo-i 638 ii. a

(vTcpotf 387

^irrej 363

^it6j 309, 326 iii., 354

i?^ 247, 323, 341

?f 412

^fet 618

ikelxu) 559 a

f^ifKOPTa 422

^|6i^ (aoc. absol.) 339

fiui 646 n.

ffo 328 iii.

iop 356

^oOs 328 iii.

iTToLvriircu 624 i. a

dreidotf 548 iii

fxefi^f^a 502

^ev^vo^e 550

ffirco 163, 474, 520

H-ixidfjkev 259 ii.

^r«rof^«(v) 606

ixciroieri 506
4x€xol$ris 506
<W$ 618 ii. «
iir4<Tircp<r€ 645 i. c
^reiT^ri 142, 322
fx€<pwo¥ 480 e
iiHlfioXot 220
iirdyeira 552 iii.
^f 337. 7, 341
iTTi^dWwai (dat pi.)

645 i. c
^(/SaXX^n^avs 645 ii. a
ixi^ia 259 i.
^TipScu 199
ixiFol9w 629 i. rf
^jri^^y (inf.) 640 ii. c
(iri0op 253
irUovpoi 482 &
iirififKeireov 624 ii. c

^fo-KOTOS 9

iirlaTtafMi 511
^ro<i7a 633 i. (2
ixofjuu 139 a
^Tou 520
^m-ot 130, 413
ipyoi 618 ii. e
lpe/3o$ 193

^p6MJr6s 193
^prr/i^s 393
i?pM-w 197
^pc&YOfjMi 231
^p^0<tf 231, 239
/pif 348
^pt0oj 377
^ppeov 204
ippftfyeta p. 354 n. 1
#p/M7a 549 i.
fpaev 624 i. e
HpffTi 55

^pi;0/>6i' (aoc.) 386
ipvOpit 135, 147, 231
ip^KaKOP 480/
fpXOfuu 545
<?¥248
^520
^(r)3f7r 480 a
^(T^^XXoKTej 618 i. c
iffdoTTjpes 618 i. a
^(r^fw 485, 645
^(T^w 486

^<ric€ 483 a
iffKeSdaOrts 504
i(r/juip 184
fffirctpa 184
((TTcura 188
drreurfuu 188, 446
^(nrero 480 «
^<r<ria0€iw 623 L «/
^<r<r*(?3 pi.) 624 ii.^
iarairip 513
frrafup 446
^<rW184
^oTciXo 184
^oreXXa 624 L e
^(myifo 494, 495, 541-
^(TT^w 492
iffrifffa 502, 515
#<rri 28, 142, 161, 4^:
f<m (3 pi.) 624 ii. <;
iarbpeaa 481 «
^<rrw 519
itrxaTlti 133
i(rx^0op 485
^trxw 98, p. 129 n. 2
huipop 185
frc/cov 480 d
ir^Xeffffa 482 6
^^Oi$ ( = frca't) 628 a
^•rrdxaro 472
^•( 244, 342
irldei 480 c
iTifufjeriP 448
irlfirjaa 502
froj 55 n. 2, p. 129 n.
h-St 260, 263 n. 2
irpdrifp 600
^pc^a 502
ciryeviH 296
dfeXrtp 348 n. 2
tvFpmp-daarv 620 i. <7
e^^ctf {i\e€t») 645 i. ^
f^^wa 361 n. 1
€<fedpai 220
€^\ripa 231
fVM«^f 292
EiV^ 292
€^pis 397
e^fov 269
e^ofup 480 &
e0w 142

/. GREEK INDEX

587

ihrdTopa 258

^rdrup 258

vp^ 517 n. 1

vplffKu 483 a

vpuowa p. 224, 293 n. 1

vpiLft 231

vaa^oi 633 i. a

ii<f>po»a 258, 259 v.

^0pci;i/ 258

Cwl78

(pdvTiv 280, 448

<p€p€ 462

0ep€-v 241

0^/)£Tc 464

tpepd/jLtSa 98, 470

</>ipofJLev 464

ip^pofies 464

'0epov 325 viii., 462

'0€pov (3 pi.) 464

'(prjv 462, 479, 500

'<pr)<Tda 477

'ipdapKa 494

^0^opa 494

'0te( 142 n. 3

'xa5ov 481 d

'X€va 138, 624 i. c

X^a/pw 487 c iii.

X^<?s 233

xOicjv 352 n. 2

'xoKTi 624 i. /

'xoC^Vi 620 i.

'x6vTun voOv 278

Xovaa 220

'xou<rt (dat. pi.) 220

'xovai (3 pi. pres.) 220

'X« p. 129 n. 2, 480 rf

Xw{i')<ri 620 i.

'u;493

■u)0ovy 445

(jjvovfirjv 445

c6/)a;i' 445

wf (''until") 342

W ("morning") 142, 181

(4), 227
ojvToVf 328 iii. n.

'd/yyoi' 633 i. a
•ap-qv 358

"ef a5e9dTo 629 i.^rf
'eid^o; 493

FeldofMi 259 ii.
ffti-wt 633 i. b
FeUari 815
f^Ktt 314
FideTv 259 IL
ff«i7Te 510 n. 3
Fi8vt(u 353
Fi8u)fjLev 510 n. 2
f/icart 420
Fiardi 103 iii.
f ot$a 259 ii.
FoIku (abl.) 310 n.
FoIkuv (gen. pi.) 319
F&ri 629 i. d
f/xirpa 633 i. a
FvKlas (oUlas) 625 L d

^fiop 633 i. b

faj 620 i.

pixa 633 i. 6

\ipeepw 618 i. c

i-^<r<ro 187

ZeO 271

fciJy/iaTa 667 ii. b

^eijyvvfu 52

fevTOJ 667 ii. b

Zei^s 54, 116. 6, 118,

181 (5), 197, 271, 289
ZcOs 624 L a
r^w 144
Zi}v (ace.) 54, 181 (6),

289, 501 n. 3
7jrjpa 54
Zijwes 54
Zf^W 54
Z97i'6$ 54
^Kam 633 i. 6
foiryciwep, 637 i. d
^vyd 317
M^y 118, 144, 167, p.

224, 303, 306, 376
^J/xi? 144
^unffvfu 481 «

77 325 i.

^ (adv.) 342

i/a 181 (2), 209, 445, 501

il^ovKbpLtlv 445

rij^ofiai 142

iJ7oy 209

^dea445, 478, 482 a, 502,

504, 506
il84i 313
^det 318
T^«eta 367, 374
^8ti/iep 506 n. 4
rfieis 317

^os 309, 365, 371
iSri 502, 550
ifSlwy 352 n. 2
^dori) 397
ifiijp 308
■ffSwdfiTiv 445
^di^ 142, 160, 306, 365,

367
ii0€\op 445
iX (dcO 625 i. e
M&eos 21, 135
ifxa 495
^/ce 548 ii
IJKta 547
^\9ov 216 n. 3
iji\v$OM 216 n. 3
^/xa 142, 162, 260
il/jMt 329
ilfUdifiPov 228 •
^/ieis 329
ijfuWw 445
ijfupwbs 206
^/xepos 277
ij^Tepbp-de 538 n.
ilfUrepos 330, 387
^Auy 329
rjfuffd at 122
ilfuplcaa 481 e
ilfiipleffpttu 481 e
^Au^v 329
^v€7/ca 480/, p. 451 n. 1,

543
'fjvtiXbfiV^ 445
^I'^oi' 216 u. 3
171^^ (n. pi.) 299
^vfa (fern, sing.) 299
rivlTraxotf 480/
ijof 342, 650
i)oO$ 334. 7
^irap 139 a, 207 n. 1,

295, 354
lixaTos 139 a, 354
^eipof 55

588

'UpoKkcldaios 626 a

Tjpfyal^dfiri^ 446

^p^a 548 Um 552 ii.

ijpira$a 503

'fjfyiraa'a 503

iipXf 548 ii

V^o 477

liffBtw 121, 209, 212

^uxot 277

'H(rxodXo$ 625 i. c

rirrQ/Mu 547

^X<^ 406

i)<^ 181 (4), 851

Oafji^ut 185

Odvarot 154

0ap(r€t 652 iL

Bef 311

^ccufft 322

^edy 308

0eduv 18, 319

Qci^eios 625 L e

^et/iiei' 174

0€lvu) 141 5, 487 a

Belo/iev 650

BituBXop 391

^^/A«(y 51

0^/iev 51

^^/uf 370

Bebj^vros 118 a

d^o«(acc.)624i./

^e6j (ace. pi.) 248

Bedadaroi 118 a, 285

Bto{^i 248

de6^v 338. 2

^epdircuva 362, 374

BepawTflri 299

BepdTWP 362

0(pAt<^ 141 &, 148, 393

9^f 520

B4aii 133

e^Ttf 287

^6t6j 260, 263 n. 2

GevicX^ 648

Btwtf (gen. pi.) 319

e-npaycviis 313 n. 1

0^/3at 313 n. 1

ei;/3ac7CFiJj 313

e^^rj 313 n. 1

Brfydyif 481 c

///DICES OF WORDS

B-itf^vQv 481 <;
Brrydtfu 481 c
^T^w 481 c

^i^Ki7 382

BijXvs 162, 373

^p/oy 268

B^ 347, 375

^ij<raro 264

Briffl 187

Biyydvia 481 c

9/7es 520 n.

0t6f {Beis) 625 i. e

BvyaKu 483 a, 544

dnpr(jf 154

Bplyl^ 346

0p6yo$ 397

BvydTTip 355

BvfMft6pw 292

Bvfio^Spos 282, 284, 292

0t;Ai6f 282, 393

^uW«481/

^jJw 481/

9()of 117

^($pa 135

B^paei 322

9(0AuS>s 191 n. 2, 260

Bthpojca 308

Bu)pOLK€S 317

^(^paxt 311
0(^pa^ 306
d(^pa|i 322

fa 207 n.

Iap6s 386

feuri p. 148 n. 2, 461

Wrr^i ( = o6<rjj) 645 i. a

id4 (**8ee")6l7

tSpii 367

lSp6<a 143 n. 2

ldp(^ 142, 487 iii. n.

ISvTa 116. 6, 353

tSwfMi (fat) 561

tec 517

t€fi€¥ 446, 480 c

UpafXPdfjLowai 618 i. &

Ufy^ 618 ii 5.

Up6t 386 n. 3

l^ofi€P 480 d

l^u> 143, 199, 259 i.

XtI/u 142, 162; 4S0

Irjs 207 n.

/0ap6¥, 261

tBi 518

*lBfUMfUca 640 i. 6

ftor^poj' 620 L £1, ii

Ud»«481 <■, 4S1/

U^rfwra 445

f/cjros 20

iKPionai 481 y

fxrif 233

XXtiBi 518

'I)aoo200

fficp 480 a

U 825 iii.

{i'808

Iv 618 L <;

Ua 314, 325 ir., 3i'

338. 10, 342
XotL^ (subj.) 509.

659 6
to{v)c(. 620 L
l&i 201, 220
firirc 31, 82
lirireiJj 865
rmroctv 316
Xinrour 316
firirocs 116. 6
fmroi^i 322
fmrourtr 241
rnrof 20, 31, 82, .

139
linr&Ta 293
rmrovs 220
rmrcrir 209
liriTibw 361 n. 1
l^v 165
lp6f 386

Ipor 386 n. 3, 624 i. •
If 289, 306
r<r^t("know*') 51S
fir^c(**be")233, 518
'UBfUH 271, 313
laBpLol 271
taw 638 i.

ttmiuu 447, 480 c, 549
Irrapxp 446, 430 c
Xaraiu 262
Z<rrdi'af526
roTOi'Ti (3 pi. pres.) 4^"*

/. GREEK INDEX

589

tnaaBoA 526

crraiTi 461

(TTorat (subj.) 610 n. 2

crrart (3 sing.) 480 c

a-T77 517

o-Tiy/u 447, 549 ii.

a'7-i7<ri 480 c

crT6s 192

crx<>i>'<^<^ 481/

<rx(ii'w481/

axvp6t 386

■<rx«480rf, 481/

Wa 166, 171

TVS 372

Vol 519

'<p6ifioi 113. 2

:0( 338. 10

XO^ 307

X^w 311

:x^6i 233

:x^«Jfft 322

V 207 n.

ca (Cypr.) 342 n.
<d 639 6
c<£)Si3oXc 243
KaSi^ofuu 445
ca^ 326 i., 342
KaKovpyos 286
icaXei (3 sing, fut.) 478
KaXelfietfos 628 b
KaXeiy 146
ncdXi/Au 624 ii. a
KaXloy (ptcp. ) 645 i. g
KaWluv 352 n. 2
ica\6f 218
icaXiJiTTw 152
icaXcD (fut.) 492
KuXCn 278
PcaXc^s (adv.) 635
xdfjLvu) 481 b
KafJLirOXoi 268
icair 243
Kdri 245
jcairi'is 198
Kdpa 351
icapd/a 100, 134
KapSiaxds 382
icdpi'Of 106 iv., 351
Kaprbs 141* i.

ica; 342 n.

Kar 243

/card 341, 342 n.

Kq.ra 245

KaraOivt (ptcp.) 645 L c

icard(rxoi (inteirog.) 564

Korai^eOytiv 544

Kar^^dKov 445

icare/Si^ero 503

Kar(tfj9X€^p. 224

Wdpof 196

irei/MU 239, 447

Kc^pca 141* i.

ic^icXaarai 482 5

iceicXi^yovTef 624 ii. b

K4K\o4>a 496

K^xXvdi 480 0, 518

K^KfiriKa 495

jT^jm^/Mu 446, 549 i., 552

ii.
KeXaitf€<fr/ls 228
x^Xei/^a 299
KiXevOos 299
ic^ 559, 562
KOftbt 403
jreir6f 403

K€pdppvtu 480 e, 481 a, e
Kipai 351
jrepdo; 481 a

K^ffTOS 188

Kev^di'w 481 c
Kevefubtf 359
irei^^o) 191, 481 c
KetpdWdfeaat 628 a
jrt> (/ccU) 625 i. c
«n7p«0'o-(06pi;ros 284
ic^pv^ 383
mipOirffta 487 c
Ktl^yfyf 358
/ciTxdvw 481 «
iciSd0i7 377
KifUvas 625 i. <;
Klp^nfu 481 a
«fjl39, 623i./
Kixdvia 481 e
mx^/w (subj.) 559
xlw 488
icXd^.; 482 b
«fX/x7T7» 103 ii.
KXitb) 211

irX^^por 196, 389

KXrtli 189

/cX]f(tf 189, 208

KXlfut 136, 487 c

kX6v(s 370

KXor6s 346

/rXC^i 518

*cXutAj133, 146, 167, 378,

586
«rX(^^ 346

Ko- (Ionic =iro-) 655
Ko4pavos 625 i. d
Koiui 180
/coiXos 212
Koi¥6s 205, 207, 341
ir6Xa^f 377
KoXujvSs 141* i.
K»lu 487 c

KOpOKLVOS 399

Kop^pvvfu 481 e

ic6/>i7 62

jr6p(n7 188, 351, 403

KhpvBoi 380

KopOffffw 487 c

iropu^ 377

Kdrepof 139

Kovpos 220

irpoii'cu 487 e

Kpdffxcbw 351

Kparw 547

Kpiat 351

Kpclffffup 197, 219

KpcLTThvias 278

KpifMfJuu 480 ^

Kpefidywvfu 481 0

Kpitw.ra{xjyhtuLTa) 645 i.(i

Kpivvefttv 623 i. ^

KpilfUfTI 517

K/H^ 158 n. 2
/cpi/ia 359
icp^'jrw 624 i. <:
icp^vo; 389, 487 c
Kplpuvffi 618 i. ^
K/wWttff 360
K^yoj 397, 487 c
Kpina<txn 877
Afrd/icyos 494 n. 2
KTdo/Mi 549 i., 552 iL
<cr€fva; 193, 207, 494
icTiWiy 233

590

INDICES OF WORDS

ktL^u 113. 2
KTiXoi 113. 2
Kvdtavla 196 n. 2
Kviu) 488
KVK\4<a 487 c
/ci/ye 316
Kvi'6( 254
KwQra p. 224
Kvppov 623 i. (7
/oJff^oj 191, 192
Kvutv 136, 254, 306

\a^ 517 n. 1

M^effKov 483 a

X(l)3ov (imperat.) 643 i. d

\ay6i (ace. pi.) 248

\ayxdvb> 481 c

Xeu6f 174, 403

Xafi^dyu 481 c

XaySdyu) 481 c

Xdpiry^ 360

XdaxM 483 a

X^euva 60, 362

X^/9i7f 347

X«?7c 302

X^7eiy (with 2 ace.) 333.

5c
Xey^fievai 28, 359, 400
X^7eo 325 n. 1
X^cffSai 280, 312, 626
\iyoi (fut.) 565
\ey6fiepoi 28, 359, 400
Xe76i'Tw 18
\€lx€ff0at 526
X€firwl22, 139 rt
\ei<f>diipai 526
X6(00i^(rofuu 448
XelipBrrri 518
X^/cTo 188
XiKxpov 388
XeXei/i/Ac^oy 468 n. 1
XcXef^^erou 555
\e\vfJuivoi 269
XeXi^o/xat 492
\4\vTai 298
X^fot/w (interrog.) 564
Xiom-os 50, 362
XeuKa^yfai 487 c
\€vk6s 146
Xei^iTb) 487 a

\4uv 50, 362
Xi/ddvcu 481 e
XiJ^w 481 c
X)700i^o/MU 492
XiyyOi 373

Xi<rpi0/s 323, 338. 10
Mwa 230
X(irap^(o 104
XlffffOfMi 197
Xur(r6s 232
XiH, 197
Xtr^f 232
X«h'e 281, 302
X&yot 281, 288, 376
X6€l80
Xovfuii 642
Xoxa76s 258 n.
XvSeis 362, 533
Xu^ei^T- 227
XvKdftavTOi 334. 7
XiJ/coj 139 c
Xtrrd (XotTd) 625 i. d
Av(ravLac 625 i. c
X6(ras 533
Xiy(raa-^ai 526
X6<r€adou 526
Xi/o-wy 633
Xi>r/)oi' 390
Xulwf 352 n. 2

fiA 623 ii. G^
Aui^]7s 659
fuidrfTidcj 489
Haberai 26, 157
fiaufo/jLcu 269 y., 494
/Aourt^pavs (ace. pi.) 645

ii. a
fidxaipa 207
/AaXaK/w 360
fiaXaK6i 230
fAaXBaKds 485
MaXof ^Kxa (ace.) 273 n. 2
/lAdvrts 25, 28
fidpvafJLai 206, 447
fiaariydxav 630 ii. c
tioATriita 487 c
/xarei^Q} 158
/lAdn^p 148, 355
/x^ 328 ii.
Ai^7as p. 149 n. 1

fuSvw 487 c
fieli^ofos (gen. ) 352
/iMltwy 219
Uhcl^ioi 643 L 6
fieipa^ 349
/ie/s 162 n. 2
fieire 625 i. b
fUXirra 197
/uAXw (with aor. \ 74
/A^Xin79pa(=siiig. 2.'.
lUfMiiev 26, 31, 491
fUfuvna 519
lUfUfyitiai 549 L
fie/xtr/ia-ofiat 492, 54« -
M^M«»'a 26, 31, 25y *

494
/<^i'oj259v.,292,3*M
fievffl (dat. pi.) 64^:
Ai^i'w (with ace) SSi
/i^viD 480 d
fuirnfi^pwis 206
/<^(ros 197
tidtrrodi 623 iL </
M^crcros 135, 172, IV?
Merd 314, 337. 7, 33e. 1

338. 11 n., 341
/irraXXdM 158
Ai€Ta^iJ322
/jbiToaaai 363
Mi> 342, 656, 559, 56J
Mi^F 162
firiplui 487 c
/x^wor(gen.) 162
fi'^ffofjuu (interrog. ^ y
fijjaufiai (interrog. } ;^
fii/trrfp 104, 106 iL, It

267
fiTlHera 293 n. 1
fiTfTpvid 405 u.
fi^puts 405
Ai/a 156, 207 n., 407
fdyvvfu 105, 4«3 «
AUffp6s 202, 237
fUfiyfyxKu 483 6, 549 I
fU/tyo; 480 d
fuy 325 iii.
fuv(fda 485
ftitryw 483 a
luaBitt 143
fivdofuu p. 133 n. 2, l&J

/. GREEK INDEX

591

lA»a.iTvyt»€io% 626 a
fxvriixbavvoi 198
fjLoyoiFThKOi 284
fjioL^ 327, 328 v.
fioTpa 207

/Aoto-a (/u>D(re^ 624 i. /
fjt6\oi (interrog.) 564
fxdpyvufu 238
fiopfx^pta 446
/ioOo-a 220
ftoxoi 620 i. 6
/AuXi^^aro; 141 6 n.
Mi^6$ 142
fjjjpioi 425
Aii^s 168, 289
/uu^o-a 220

vaita 158

vai^/rpa/wf 204

i^avs 181 (4), p. 225, 289

via 291, 376

I'eaWas 306

P(iip€l 141 &

I'^/ioJ 259 iv.

v^Auul61,164,259iv.,494

uevifiriKa 494

i/c6fi;^ p. 224

v^ofxai 492, 547 ii.

i'«?oi' 291, 376

y€6i 149, 291, 376

ye&nji 241, 369 n. 1

yivodcs 347

i/eu/)i7 299

vevpov 299

1^60^X97 390

v€<f>p&s 141 a

Ww("8pin") 149

i/6u;y 227

pija (ace.) 289 D. 3

vrjirOriOi 158

i'77<roj 65

V^iTO-O 158

viKcdPToii 628 a
vc«ru) 547
viv 325 iii.
vlffcopuam, 188
y£^ 141 a
vo/ieiyfa; 487 C
v6fios 259 iv.
yotv^X^ia 278

vovf ^x**" 278

Mowex^ 278

fowex^'''''**^ 278

fiJ 167, 342

pvktSs 139 c, 834. 7

viJ/n^a (voc. ) 307

y^v 342

vOy 342

Ki^arcu 645 ii. c

I'l)^ 347

vv6s 104

KiJ^ (vi?/*^) 120

v(^329

vu;t 329

vtuii' 329

fwlrepos 830

i^r 329

AoyBu) 405
^€u/of 219
etfvfof 403
^ivpos 624 i. 0
$4poi 170, 219, 403
{^0os 192, 193
^(^341

6 629 i. b

6 325 i., 326 i

'Oo^oi 232

6/36X6; 140 b

6/3oX6f 140 6

dySai/lKOVTa 422

67600$ 433

676(^Korra 422

67/cot 163

67/40$ 261

6dd^ 322

66c 325 ii.

68€\6s 140 &

66/ii} 393 n. 2

o66t 251

66ot}s 134, 306 n. 1, 362

dSovai 322

dSwripits 386

'05i;<rffci;$ 37

dSibdvaraL 549 i.

6i-of 143

ol 325 ii.

oT (dat.) 328 v.

of (adv.) 842

otyvvfu 232

or6a 106 i., 477, 494, 502,

606, 643, 649 i., 660
o?6e 176, 477
oZ6€i' (with gen.) 334. 4
016' &n 66
6i€s 317 n. 1
cixe 307

ofm 34 u., 209, 309, 313
Uxeios 399 n. 1, 402 n. 2
olKla 402 n. 2
oULav 618 ii. c
olKlffKos 483 a
oftcoi 34, 209, 271, 309,

313
ol/cot 271, 317
otKOis 176, 181 (3), 227,

305
oUoiiri 306, 322
oIkov 303, 308
or^oj 142, 294, 306, 343,

376
otKovs 206
olKTlpu 207
ofifv 181 (3), 311
6iv 308
otvrj 407
olvos ("ace") 149, 176,

396, 407
ofyo^ 263
ofoj 122, 407
oidrepov 887
6» 114, 172, 306, 366
oZ<7e603
otcBa 477
dtaovTi 638 i.
olffHov (with ace.) 333. 66
ot<rta 603
ofxo/iai 647

6K/Hj261n. 1, 370, 414
6KT<il03 ii., 106 i., 163,

414
6«fTu> 638 L
6Xe^/>os 389
6X^Kb; 495
6X/70S 117, 232
6X(7ot 624 i. a
dXiffOdvu 232, 238
6XXi.Au 187, 495
6\u>\a 496, 6^9 i.

592

INDICES OF WORDS

6\d>\€Ka 495
6fMK6t 370, 390
dfuxita 138, 232
6/i/jM 139 a

OfioXoylom (subj.) 645 i.^
dfUtpyfVfu 238, 481 e
6/ji6s 156, 259 ir.
6fi^s 169

6p {dt^d) 624 L ^

fl-re 623 iL 6

5yo/ia 359

dvofuibta 487 c

^vo/udirXvros 284

6v6fMTa 157, 359, 361

6v6fJLaTos 309, 359

0yu/ia 624 i g

6fr6pa4, (=ov-6^ai) 654

^irra {inrbaa) 625 i. gr

dx^rroc ( = birbaoi) 645 i. a

&%vU{0)0(u 645 i. c^

&w<hpfni 334. 7

6/><iw 543

tpyvia 309

($p7i/iaf 309

dpiyvvfu 481 0

6p^l47

6pe«T6j 378

dfApu 487 c

bpfuaiuOov 468 n. 1

0/>yu^i 518

tfpyv/tt 481 e, 549 ii.

0pos22O

6po^239

ipotfioi 239

A6p?oi' 629 i. d

6p^<r<na 232, 238

dpx-fyrrpa 392

tfpwpe 549 ii.

irpCpta 487 c

5f 325 iv.

6<r/i^ 393 n. 2

00-01197

6a<r€ 114, 197, 366

Arrtj 325 vi.

5rc342

6rifu 326 ir., 329 iv.

&rp6vut 487 c i.

oO(gen.) 328 iii.

oO (adv.) 342

oiJ 342, 566, 657. 2, 562

oS^ap 135, 153, 354

oM 326 y.

odXos 154

oHvofjM. 220

o6papL(aif€s 860

ouf ( = uw) 623 i. 6

o0<ra 374

o5rof 325 iL

6i>€L>M 239

5^Xos 239 n.

dlpptfos 371

6^pCs 371

«Xos 138, 171

<i^c<oyr6f 489

5^(f 263

dj^o/Mu 263

rdOei 83

xd^of 359

rd^cu 560

TCuSaytaybi 293

xa^des 635

xaidliTKri 381, 483 a

Tcudwi' 635

TouwdXKia 446

rato-a (xcura) 624 i. /

TcUoTprj 392

wakiilffTpa 392

TdXro 188

■■aXr6j 152, 259 vii.

wopovpyot 286

TdM<ra 218

Td(v)ra 626 i. c

watrroSarbs 286

xdyrovy (gen. pi. ) 623 i. b

vavr&v 635

rdifv 341

xaviJdTaros 341

ropd 247, 314, 337. 7,

341
Topa^ptapar (subj.) 664
rapa^Xibyp p. 224
Tap(xyip{ftavBri (8 pi. subj.)

625 ii.
rapo/ 247, 841
xdpoj 247, 341
rao-a 218
TlatriddaFo 309 n.
rardpa {raripa) 629 i. a

irar^d (iraTijy>) 645 L '
warclp 625 i. 6
iraWo/tac 484
rdrep 98, 307
ToWpa 48, 253, 2t^. ::.'.

vi., 806, 308
raripe 316
raripei 32, 317
xor^pc 311
raripouf 316
raripos 48
Torjjp 48, 92, 98, 1' .

130, 162, 169, j:?

267, 296, 306, 3,S5
Tarpdat 32, 258* 25$ rl

322
rtiTpl 48
Tdrpiot 402
■■orp6j 48, 253, 259 tI

309
Tar/>c6t'of 405 n.
varpCav 32
rdrptat 405
xai^o/iof 542
TaOpoi 130, 177
Tavffolfiifp 514
irai$0-oi|u 514
ral)w 542

raxvX6f 268, 390
xeW 48, 259 L, 314, S >

10

7
Tei-6s48
r€L0ofU9 480 ft
xef^w 175, 253, 259 L

494 A

weiOib 406
weipdia 487 c
weifffJM 188
Wktw 192, 484
reXdcii 481 a
rAXa 146
Ti\fiaU6
rifJLimn 431
Tci'0ep6t 102
TipOoi 83, 350
TCvrairo<rio<rr6T 437
rei^di 347
irAre 139 6, 160, 411

/. GREEK INDEX

593

'ivH\Kfnm. 421
efTaXrou 446
tjravKivou 526
^TTcixa 494
^Tei<r^€ 471
im0fiev 494

iTot^o 176, 263, 269 ii.,
494

€irol0ofjiev 609
firo/Kpa 496
^iroi'^a 258
6T6y^ctf 643 ii.
€vpeff^€UKta¥ 624 ii. 6
irpunai 154
<^/>a341
^/)ai/ 341
4pSi^ 383

e/>i^o-(u (subj.) 669 b
spl 247. 337. 7, 841
fpi8(bfi€0ov 468 n. 1
splKXvTos 289
E/)(ir\6/i6vof 189
^pny/w 447, 481 a
ippara 861, 624 i. e
^pvffi 337. 8
icavpes 139

irdvvvfu 480 e, 481 a, «
^ro^ucu iSO d
irrapa 626 i. ^
hrapes 139

:i/^o/«M 179, 269 iii.,
481 c
=u^u; 405
■(pdpBai 526
f^cjO'tt 179
f^uxa 496

<pvT€VK^fiev 638 ii. 6
7 338. 8
^vfu 185

JKTds 186

)7\77tddew p. 278 D. 1

jXiKOi 370

JXfo* 371

Jxcwy 371

;X«^« 371

aLvQj 487 c

0^<rdae 165

KpcUvuf 487 c

Xi'a/xai 481 a

\yduf 481 6

tIXoj 390

vifurpvi 517

rij^cu 545

vloiuu 492, 509, 545

iriTTw 192, 480 d, 481 a

Ticrii 133

irt<rT6f 269 ii.

riffvpei 139

riry^w 481 a, 488

irirvritu 481 a

t/tvw 481 a, 481 ft, 488

r/cui' 361

xXa^i/orra 633 i. a

ir\€iw€p (ace.) 633 ii. a

v\€io\n (ace. pi.) 362

xX^oi' (xXetoi') 122

xX^w (part.) 50

rX^^of 56, 366

rXi7<r/Myi^ 400

T\o(HTlOi 133

tXoOtot 133

iTfoiJ 62

T6da 42, 156, p. 224, 268,

259 i.
wobarix% 139 a, 826 i.
T6des 317
To^i 165, 209, 311
ro^ou' 316
Tod6f 309
roety (rotctv) 122
roiyna 618 ii. (2
iroi)a(r<rat (TOti^a<r^ai) 638

i. «
vo^uxriv (interrog.) 660
ir60€¥ 325 vi., 326 iii.
Troi325 vi., 337. 8
Totoz/icvof 648
Toiifffei (aubi.) 509
ToificUyu) 48/ e
rotfUva 808
ToifUves 209, 317
ToifUvi 311
voifjJvos 309
ir(Mju^<rt 322, 364
Tot/un^y 359, 369 n.
Iloti'oi 207 n.
v-Mv^ 139
Toios p. 295 n. 1
Toi<l>^<Tu 446
rMw 211

2q

TOi(M>dris 848

T6Xet 311, 313

t6X«(s 211

To\€fji4(a 487 c

ToXe/A^ 487 c

T6Xeos 309, 365

rdXeiri 822

■■AXew (gen.) 267, 809

T6\rti 813

r6Xi7os 365

t6\i 307

ir6Xios (gen.) 365

IloXtoi^^eyos 625 i. a

T6Xis 866

xdXiiri 322

ToXlrrjs 293

ToX/rou 293

roXXd^ts 326 v.

roWol 164

t6Xos 139

ToUfilnives 358

vbpKot 147

Top*t>jip(a 207, 487 ft

t6s 618 ii. «

TOfff 187

T6<rts 114, 133, 163, 277

roffffL 322

rdrcpov 387

r&repos 139

T^ri'ta 207 n.

T^i'iai' 308

Tov 325 vi.

ro{fS 100, 104, 268, 289

rofa) 245

Tpaxrioi 403

irpa^lofi€v (fut.) 646 i. ^

Tpdcop 153

TpoLOffbinaaiTi 638 ii. a

TpdffffU) 118

irparoi 427, 637 i. rf
Tpivowra 188
TpiiT^vi 143
Tpcff^&repos 9
Tpcayvi 143
xpi^^ctf 486
IIptaAiidi^s 380
Tp^341
xpdpaais 299
rrpo^Tfpov 387
Tpoypa<fniirn 639 a

594

INDICES OF WORDS

rpofii^rfimpos 899

Tpdfios 282, 394

rpbs 197 n. 2, 246, 337.

7, 341
Tp6a0c 314 n. 1
irpdratfis 624 i. g
TpoTn97n. 2, 246, 337.7
TpoTieeiai 624 i. /
Tpcrridrprri 639 a
Tpitfufa 376
wpCjTos 427
WTdpvvfjuit 481 «
TTeX^a 192
xWpv^ 360
rrfercrcii 188, 487 c
tt6\€i 318
irr6\e/uios 197
TT^Xifi 313 n. 2
Tr6\ts 197
iTTwf 624 i. a
Tvdicdai 166 n. 2
ri/dw 168

TuXas (^uX^s) 646 i. c^
UvXoiyeHii 318
TjJ/txaTOf 394

irvv0dyofiai 102, 179, 481 c
TiJoTw 259 iii.
TwXot 162
irc^i'cu 114
Tiis p. 224, 289, 375

^203
l^fipofuu 481 (2
/iiu 203
^wv 60
jrfrfvvfu p. 225
^i70f 203, 234, 237
ju,y6ta 487 iii. n.
jiL^a 234
^(HT^w 488
^fiTTw 488
^o8o8dKTv\os 292
phoFauri 119, 648 i. 6
InayaXeoi 403
^€S p. 226
JHiivvviu 481 e

(rd( = *r4a)641
^ra/pw 198
(rd«rof 198

ffiXwiy^ 850

(rd /idi' ; 197 n. 2

<r^vpvtu 116. 2 6, 143,

481 «
iTi 198, 828 iL
aipofuu 488
<r^iSw 197 n. 2
ffiOcv 326 iii.
(reto 328 iii.
<r4o 828 iii.
(Ttra 299
(TITOS 299

<r(fa7 ( = ^£o&) 637 i. b
ffKards (gen.) 864
(TKcddvifVfu 481 a, 481 e
(TKfSdw 481 a
<riceTTiir6f 382
<TK€vd<atf {ffKcvitotf) 688 i. a
(TK^rpofiai 488
ffKldtrrifu 481 a
<rW0os 192
<rK\fip6s 189
(TKoir^w 488
<r4C(nr6f 488
<ric(6p 296, 364
<r/iep8a\ios 287
afxepdp^ 202
(r/u/cp6s 202, 287
<ro/3^(ii 488
<roZ 328 ▼.
c6s 830
<roD 328 iii.
(To^c^epof 290
(nrddioi' 194 n. 2
o-Toipw 142, 207
(Tvdia 482 2>
(rxdpoi 282
ffvMu 488
<rWp^ 282
(TtrepfioKiyos 281, 282
aripxofMi 486
o-Tci^db; 179
(Tir^XiO'f 360
(TirXj^i' 189
<r«-ou«i> 122, 179
<rraefi6i 393
OToUrfv 612
araifiof 174, 512
ordXo 218
(TTdXXo 218

rrafjuav 262
(TTdwi 165, 169, 262
(TT^ 237
(TT^os 202, 237
<rr^ 141* iL, 237
arelofiep 650
o-Tcixw- 176
(TT^XXw 170, 207
(trififita 185
ffTipyTtOpom 889
ffri^MPos 400
(TTCipdwiafu 624 iL a
(TT^tfl 618

(Tj^Xij 218
<rn^Mc^ 611
(rTfi^l42, 197
oTod 246
(TTOid 245
OToix^d^r 380
aropiv¥Vfu 481 «
arpa^un^ 358
crrpaTla 133
ffrpaTiuripois 387
ffTp&ns 624 i. ^
arp(afM. 400
ffTputforlj 400
ffrpurrit 164, 189
01; 198, 328 i.
<ru776'c«a 299
(rv7«ca(?eX«cu4r^]^crcu 27.'
ffvtcvypOtKU 118 6
<rv^ 118 6
<n/XiJoiTCT 630 iL c
o^fMTos 637 i. 6
(TtJi' 838. 11, 341
cwax^ffoOtrrt 492
ffwrlOiiai (2 sing.) t«

ii. 6
(Tvpvy^ 850
<rD} 201

<r0a7eff (with gen. ) 334. -
fffpdyiop 402
(T^XXcii 113
(T^ 192, 329
ff^tirepm 330
(r0i^ 199
(T^^Tyw 481 d
(T<t>l» 829
<r06f 330
(r^829

/. GREEK INDEX

695

: a-ifxalrepoi 330

ff<pu)v 329

ax^s 620, 652 i.
. <rxT7<rw 546 n. 1

XojKpdrri 282

^(OKpdTTjv 50, 282

XwKp^TTii 618 ii. a

(Ttapds 198

rd^ (ace. pi.) 646 i. e

Ta0€iiTi 219

ral 326 ii., 326 1

ratS (dat. pi. ) 646 i. «

rals (ace.) 624 i. f

raXa6$ 154

rdXaj 106 ir., 152, 218,
259 vii.

Tov&yXuxra-os 133, 157
. TdvvTOi 481 «
. raptiu) 481 «
I Tdpatrra (acc.) 273

rds (acc. pi.) 645 i. c

rdxa 338. 10

Tdtay (gen.) 18, 142, 319

W ( = <rO 328 ii.

r6(*'and")342

ri?r?237

W7« 202, 287

T^yu) 237
; reF6s 330

reOyaiijv 613

TcBpalrfs 649 i.

HdvnKa 495, 544

r€0vi)^ia 492

rcfi'w 494

Teto-a^ici'df 268

refx'? (t€/x«) 121

T€KfuUp(a 487 c

Wicyoi' 396

riKTOiva 207

TCKTalvu) 487 c

WiCTwv 60, 161 n. 2, 193

reXdftufv 259 vii.

rAetos 211

TcXffw 487 c

reXe0'06pof 268

rcX^a; 482 6, 487 c, 494

rcXiJcis 211

tAXw 139

riXofuu 492

rAof 482 5

riXffw 184

rifjLVia 481 5

r^pdcii 488

Wo 325 ?i.

T€oto 328 iii.

T6ou$ 328 iii.

riperpoy 138

W/>/ia 281, 282, 296, 317,

369
r4ptuav 295, 306, 317, 359
T^/wos 429
T^aaapes 198, 410
T^ffffepes 139
rrrd7/i6i'0f 624 i. a
r/ro/ca 494
TcrafjJvoi 269
rh-apTos 430
rrrAcKtt 494
TerejJxttTot 472
r^Xo^i 480 «, 518
rh-\aiuv 259 vii., 446
T6-opcs 139, 410
T^rpa/AfMi 496
rrrpd^arai 496
rrrpd4>eai 626
Terplrj/ofitu 492
T^Tpwpa 496
rerpd^Koyra 421
TerrapdKorra 421
rirrapes 139 6
Terrdpois 628 o
rmJa;iceTo 483 6
T^V 325 vi.
rf^ 198, 828 i.
TffKeSufy 357
nyXkoi 370
T^i^a (Z^a) 646 i. &
njvw 326 iii.
n7i'w^e 326 iii.
T^oj 660

W 325 vL, 326 i.
tL0€i 517

W06M€y 253 n. 2, 480 c
TlBcircu 466
rlSeireop 469
rWereu 467
Wtfi7A« 100, 191 n. 2, 260,

480 c
Wftjtrt 133

TLOrrn 133
Wktw 192, 480 d
rtX (tu) 646 i. e
Ti/id 316
rtAto/ 316, 317
Tifidps 646 i. c

TlU/dOflOLl 31

Ti/ids 206, 218, 248, 318

ti/jAs 248

rt/idw 172, 211, 487 c

Titi.il 189, 271, 309

timS 311

TifiriOifaofiai 448, 646 n. 1

Tt/A^j (gen.) 271, 309

Tt/i-fyrofuu 448

Wfuo; 402

rt/AoOi'rcj 647 ii. c

Tivois ( = rial) 628 a

Tty6fi€vos 481/

^^481/

Tioi^a 626 i. a

t/j 64, 139, 139 6, 326 vi.

Tf<rt(dat. pi.) 64

Tiff I (=r€(<rei) 626 i. e

rlirii 133

TlHKTKOpUtU 483 &

T\a<rlaFo p. 278 n. 1
rX^vai 543
rXijT6j 164, 196
r6 163, 326 ii., 326 i.
Toi 176, 326 ii.
rol (adv.) 342
Toio 326 ii.
TOtoOrof 122, 211
Totp (rots) 633 i. e
TdXfia 259 vii., 376
ToKpuav 643
T^ir 148
Tbvi€ 118 6
T^yj 640 L a
r6j (acc. pi.) 646 i. c
ToC (interrog. ) 325 vi.
rowviovv 623 ii. h
TovrCa 326 iii.
TovTwBe 326 iii.
rpdrci-a 48, 410
TpdmiOi 618
rpair^ofiev 511
Tpdwta 545
rpavXos 218

596

INDICES OF WORDS

Tpd<p€v 627

rpets 100, 211, 271, 409

rpeh Koi dixa 418

rpifua 478

rpiina 258, 488, 496

Tp4iH)iv 462

Tp4^ p. 245 n. 1, 496

rp^ia 113

Tpiu) 204, 478, 482 b

Tprfiptav 204

rpla 409

rptdKOvra 421

rp^TOJ 347

Tplraroi 429

rp/TOf 429

rpoviui 488

rp6iros 253, 488

rpo^eid 293

Tpwf>€iw p. 245 n. 1, 293

rpo^i)f 293

rpo^i^ p. 245 n. 1, 293

rpwl>in p. 245 D. 1, 293,

294
Tp&x.^ ^86
rp{ria 486

Tr^i^a {Zrjpa) 645 i. 6
Ti) 328 i.
ruyx'^''^ 481 c
nip^ 100
rOj (tom ) 625 i. d
rti 326 i.
TJ) (interrog.) 325 vi.

d341

Mir(i'^ofl04,136,l71,381

irYioLyets 117

0daros (gen.) 354

68po5 147

0dw/> 164, 854

if€r6s 378

vtd<r( 322 n. 1

vldrt 640 i. a

vl6s 116. 6

^Atas 329

iffuii 171

iffiirepos 330

v/xi^ 142

6/uy 329 iy.

d/ifie 171, 329

0/Afu(y) 326 iy.

Hfifios 330

uM^y 329

v» p. 343 n. 2

Odf (i;i6j) 122

i)iradiorio<o(f 638 iL b

drdpxoiffok 624 i. /

inr^p 193, 341

inritrxyiofiax 481/

Otvos 142, 396

i>x(5 337. 7, 341

'Tiro^^/3ai 813 n. 1

0;)a(4Ol

Df 168, 201, 289

Cffrepos 341

(^^pTfva 446

tfV^ocf (noin. ptcp.) 624 i./

^yiSaiifa 357

0actyds 396

4>aelvta (aiibj.) 559

^eyyof 624 i. «

<t»aivaTai 633 i. a

<f>ai»ofuu 542

0aW 542

^atox^roM'tff 75

0cuVi (3 pi. ) 624 i./

0<i\a7{ 350

00^1^^ 262, 480 a

ipdfd 262, 331

tpdvai 526

^oi^e/f 362, 533

4>dvrf0i 518

0ar^vou 526

ipdprjy (<f>4p€iy) 638 i. a

ifxiffKU} 483 a

0aW 331, 480 a

i>aT6i 141 6

i>ipofuu 488

0^pe5l7

0^pei (3 sing. pres. act.)

454
4>4p€i (2 sing. pres. mid. )

466
<p4p€iv 312, 358
4^4 pHS 454
<p4p€<rai 142, 466
4>4pe<reov 469
(pcp^ffOta 522
<f>€p4ad<av 522
ipepiffd foffaf 522

i>4perai 467
0^/)€T€ 31, 82
<t»€pirri9 521
it>4peTpw 388
0f/)^w 519, 521
4»€ph'ta¥ 521
^piruaajf 521
0^/)ij (subj.) 454. 51."'
0^/)17 (2 sing. pres. l-

466
0^pi7y 358
^/>17J 454, 510
0^poi514
i^poi€P 514
^poifuv 464
0^poc/u 462, 514
0^/km; 493, 514
^pofuu 31
i>ep6/u0a 470
0^po/ior 31, 32, 459, 4?
0^/)OAt« 459, 480 6
0^porra 308, 533
0^/>orrcf 28
^porn (3 pi.) 2S, :

163, 461
i^ipovTw 624 ii. r
^pbrrta 521
^p6yriJ9 521
0^powri 28, 138, 461
^/w 14, 93, 100, :

147, 161, 251. 11^

453, 488, 543
^ptapxp 510
4>ipiM 306 n. 1, 362
4>ip^mx 227, 510
^putrri 510
4>4p(a(n 510
^i>yen' 544
^eiV^eo-icoir 483 a
^iJtw 88, 179
^ihu'W 398
^iry6j 160, 294, 376
i^ifiyi 393

^/i/ 331, 453, 480 n
^fuj 370
ft»lfri 331, 480 a
0«di»wll3. 2, 481/
^tfefpw 113. 2, 207. 4^
ipetita lis. 2
^^p/KM 207

I

/. GREEK INDEX

597

»^tJp« 207

Mvia 113. 2, 193, 481/

»^6i7 62

aXeire 121, 122, 175

►tX^w 172, 211, 487 c

><Xi}|u 51

uXti^of 399 n. 2

»fXi«-Toj 117

uXordrcup 92

uXu> 405

>ti'Wof 643 i. c

uTv 372

Aey4d(o 485

>Xif^ 346

>o/3£p^s 386

k>/9^(<; 488

»6/3of 488

^yof 141 b

iopd 93, 251

^pet^s 365 n. 1

iop4(a 259 i., 488

iopfjiM 259 vi., 393

!K)p6s 259 vi.

!>6poT 488

ipaaL 259 v., 322, 364

ip<iTi7pl04, 132, 133, 355

'>pdTopa 259 vi.

'ipdrtap 104, 106 ii., 355

ip^ara (pi.) 361

^p^i^a 258, 259 v.

"fpeffi 364

^piJoTo 361

ipiji' 258

ipovrurT-ffl (with acc.)

333. 6 a
ipoijpiov 268 n. 1
ipj>yw p. 149 n. 2
i«>y9 181 (1)
^irydj 348
ivyydifu 481 c
^iryi7 83, 376
)i>77(opt.) 172

0v/T7(opt.) 172

^i^Xo^t 322

</>v\^ 299

<pv\(» 299

0tn'6i' 378

^o^yi^ 262

<piap p. 224, 375, 528

0(^375

XcUi'Ci^ 138

Xa/pw 487 a

XaXArrw 192, 197, 487 c

XdXi^ 117

XaAta£ 138, 337. 6

Xai^idvw 141* iiL, 481 e

Xap/ets 364

Xaplecri (dat. pi.) 864

Xo-picffffa 364

Xdpcy 333. 7

X^P^rep 633 ii. a

Xd^ricw 138

Xe/XiM 425

XeiAia 356

X^iA^pci'^s 206

XeiM^^y 138, 356

Xeiffofuu 481 (2

XeXi^o? 405

xAXtot 425, 624 i. e

X^Pf^i ix^pO'S) 624 i e

X'^Ppf^v {x^ipuiv) 624 i e

X^p<roj 277

X^«(fut)492, 509

X^« 188, 179

Xijv 100, 138

X^a/iaX6f 356

X^^t 233

X^t^M 193, 356

X/Xioi p. 149 n. 2, 425

X^^uupa 138

X^fMpoi 138

Xiwi" 356

XX^62

X^proj 378
Xo^pav 623 i. 6
Xpaldoi ixpvM 633 i a
Xpcurlfiow (gen. pi.) 623

i c
Xpeortu (xp^^cu) 629 c
XpnftdToii 633 ii. 6
XP^i'oi 623 ii. e
XP^V 338. 9
XpvffoOs 269
XpvtTtaripa 387
Xffdi^eoi 643 i a
X«>rpa 388
X(2pi 278, 323
Xwp^ov 268
X<apls 247, 278, 323

^dw 486

i^4 192, 325 n. 1, 643

i. d
y^evdh 295, 351
^eudih 351
^eOdof 295, 351
^Xa0dw 193
yl/jjarpw 392
yirffXia 486

(&al64

w«:a 338. 10

ihKcavbi 239

(uiri^ 261 n. 1, 371

ijiKivyi 146

<5XCT-o( = fut.) 552 ▼.

(&v363

dfp6/i9fifa 503

*OpoAAd^7J 118 c

upuyii 239

ws (prep.) 333. 8 n. 1

u'ln'o^ 328 iii. n. 2

(6^X^(iy 239

<&0€Xo»' 121, 567

JiX€To 548 ii.

IL Italic Index

The following abbreviations are used : 0. = Oscan, P. = PaeUgni&s,
U. = Umbrian. Latin words have no distingnishiiig marjL

aamanaffed 0. 665. 4 a

ab341

abicit 125

abiegnos p. 220 n. 1

abies 374

aborigines 398

ac244

acoeptus 159 (2)

accerso 482 h

acer 261 n. 1, 370

acies 374

actor 355

actud 0. 663. 3

actum est 549 i.

acturus 537

acum O. 665. 5

acupedius 371

acutus 53

addo 191

Adeodatus 284

Aderl. 0. 196

adigo 159 (1), 274

adimo 249

advenio 547

aedes 174

aeneus 223

aenns 396

aequo (constr.) 335. 2 c,

338.2
aere 314
aeruca 383
Aesculapius 215
aestas 261

aestimo 174

aevora 172, 361

afficio 191, 273

age 517

agellus 390

agendum 531

agendus 531

ager 100, 147, 159, 215,

228
agi530

agimus 163, 480 h
agis 455
agit 455
agite 161 (1)
agitis 457
agito 519
agitor 523
agitote 521
agitur 475
agmen 183
agnus 180 n. 2, 396
ago 261
agricola 293
Agrigentum 273
agrum 386
aguntur 475, 523
Agustus 177
aidilis 174
aio 138
airid 310
ala 186, 392
albeo 487 c
albere 483 a

albeacere 483 a
Albinus 399 d. 2
Alcumena 215
alfo- U. 663. 2
alid 402

aUs (dat pi.) 321
alls 402

aliud 326 L. 40-3
alius 402, 428
alnus 186
alo 485
alter 428
alterum 387
altitude 357
alumnus 400
ama 517
amabam 442, 501
amabilem 249
amabilis 279
amabitur 272
amabo 441, 493
amamua 272
amant- 227
amarier 530
amasse 528
amavisse 528
ambages 258 n. 1
ambitus 132, 3^2
ambo 297, 315
ambulatum 529
amem 512
amemus 512
amicus 383

//. ITALIC INDEX

599

mo 172, 211

nas 158

(ii)lero(m) U. 665. 6

ngo 150

.nimadvertere 278

inimal 244, 366

inimuni advertere 278

iiiimus 169, 893

Anio 360

anser 100, 125, 138

ante 133,159,337.8,341

anticus 383

apcrio 487 c

Appellune{s O. 664. 5 h

aps 341

apstineo 125

aptus 192

arare 20 n. 2

arator 355

aratrum 388

arbor 295

arborem 308

arborescere 483 a

arboris 351

arbos 55, 294, 295, 351

arcesso 482 h

arebam 501

arena 125

Ariminam 249

aro 159

arsferturo U. 664. 5 a

artifex 159 (2)

artus 372

Ateius 402

Atella 196

Atiua 402

atque 244

atrox 383

audacem 308

audaces 317

audaciSll

audacter 283

audax 306, 383

audi 517

audiens (dicto) 336. 1 c
audio 487 c
audirem 515
audissem 515
audivisso 528
audivissem 515

aiigeo 481 c
augere 177
auris 366

Aurora 384, 482 hxa.X
aiispicato 339
auxerit (fut.) 555
avaritiae (pi.) 296
ayes 223
avif U. 668. 6
avillus 180 n. 2
avius 402
axis 186, 392

balbua 131, 288

Bansa O. 658

Bantins O. 663. 6

bellus 390, 397

bene 390

Beneventum 273 n. 2

benignus p. 220 n. 1, 274

benust U. 63

beru U. 663. 1

bidens 408

bimus 138 n. 1, 214

bis 408

biuo- 0. 663. 1

blasphemare 9

blatire487c

bonus 397

bos 18, 63, 140 a, 181 (6),

289
breviter 283
Brigantes 24
' burgus 24

cadaver 353

cadivos 404

caducus 383

Caecilis 402

Caecilius 402

caedo 481 a

caelicolum 319

caementa 299
I caementum 299
> calare 146

calcar 244, 295

calda 183

caldus 228

calefacio 273

caligo 357

calx 117

oanis 136

Can^ni (Campani) 127

canticum 382

cape 517

caperent 568

capit 487

capitur 449

capiunt 487

caprina 399

captivus 208

captus 103 ii.

cardo 357

carne 254

carnem 254

carnes 296

carnis(geu.) 254, 358

caro 141* i., 254, 358

carpo 141* i.

castellum 268 n. 1

castus 183

cavum 212

ce 325 V.

cedo 325 v.

cede 482 h

celeber 161

cena 223

censamur 0. 665. 6 a

censtur O. 664. 1

centesimns 437

centum 104, 423

centurio 360

cepi 494, 497

cerebrum 188, 204, 386

cerno 215, 389

cemuos 188, 403

cervix 349

ceterum 341

cette 183

cieo 488

9imu {h.mo) U. 660

circueo 127

cis 325 V.

citerior 387

cito 338. 10

citra325v., 387

citrus 196

civitas 369 n. 1

Cladius 177

Claudius 129, 177

600

INDICES OF WORDS

claudo 177
clavis 189
cUvos 189
clino 136
clivos 136, 403
cloaca 383
Clodius 129, 177
cbmis 370
coactum 127
coerceo 127
cogito 490
cognomen 127, 359
cognomen ta 157, 361
cognomentum 357, 359
cogo 490
cohibere 127
coicere 127, 224
coire 127

coisatens 0. 663. 6
coUa 299
collido 174
colligo 161 (1), 274
collia 141* i., 183
collum 184
colo 139
columba 377
columna 400
combifiansi U. 665. 4 d •
comes 347
comia 367
commontus 259 v.
communis 370
comparascuster 0. 665. 8
compos 163, 366
concentus 159 (2)
conculco 159 (2)
concutio 159 (1)
conditus 260
oondo 191 n. 2
conse^ui 544
conspicio 103 i.
consulatus 372
contagio 360
coutagium 360
conventio 357
conyicium 480 e n.
coqno 139
cor 100, 134
coram 337. 7
corculum 390

Corinthiacus 382

cornu 106 iv., 351

cornua 317

cosol (consul) 127, 224

cotonea 196 n.

coventio 127, 287

crastiuus 401

creber 389

credidi 52

credo 52

cribrum 389

crimen 359

cruentus 481 c

cui 123. 6, 129, 826 ii.

cuium 328 iii.

cuius 326 ii., 328 iii.

culina 188

culmen 400

cum (quom) 125, 342

cum (prep.) 205, 388. 11,

341
cupio (with gen.) 334. 4
cuspis 348
custodia 299
custodio 487 c
custos 191, 192
cutis 287, 366

dadikatted 0. 665. 4 b

daps 346

datio 360

dator48, p.220n. 2,254,

263, 295, 344, 355
datore 48, 254
datorem 48
datoris 48, 254
datus 263
de341
deabus-321
deae (dat.) 311
deae (gen.) 313
deam 308
deanim 18, 319
debeo 273

decem 136, 161, 415, 416
decimus 435
decorate 482 h
dedecori (est) 381
dedi 446
dedrot 497

defenstriz 190

degener 295, 351

degnno 226

deico (dico) 134

deikum O. 665. 5

deis 321

deiuast O. 665. 2

deiyos 322

deliro 487 c

dem 512

dens 134, 362

densua 157

desilio 249

destra U. 663. 5t

destrst O. 663. hh

deus 404 n. 3

devas 322

die 520

dicitur 449

dico 105, 134, 490

dictito 490

dicto 490

dictu 529

dictum 378

dictus 490

diduco 225

diem 289, 501 n. 8

dies 181 (5)

dignua 186, 195

dilabor 225

dimitto 225

Diovis 197

dirimo 225

discipulina 215

disco 188, 483 6, 488

dispennite 194

divos 404 n. 3

divmn (gen. pi.) 209

dixe {ml) 336. 4, 528

dijci 497

dixim 513, 515

dixissem 515

dixo 441, 492, 498, 509

dixti 482 a

do 27, 52, 191 n. 2

decent 227

dooeo 488

dolabra 889

dolere (with ace) 833. 5i

dolns 249

//. ITALIC INDEX

601

omi 282, 818

omum 388. 1 h

omus 148,168,282,294

ion a (=donum) 299 (6)

lonec 638 n.

lonum 268, 397 n. 2

lormire 488 a

Los 27, 268, 860

Irachuma 215

luam 361 n. 1

luc 520

iuco 178

iuim 512

lulcis 196

iuo 84, 184, 297, 316,

326 i., 408
duodeviginti 418
d^nos 897
Dyrrhachium 273 n. 2

ecce 325 v.

edi 162, 209 n. 3

edim 612

edo 485

cgi 209 n. 3

Egidius 249

Egiliaa 249

ego 161, 827, 828

eius 826 iii., 826 ii.

emol61,164,249, 269iy.

endo 588 u.

entelustU. 665. 8, 4(2

fipidamnus 273 n. 2

Epona 136

eporedia 186

equabus 321

equae (pat) 209

equae (nom. pi.) 315

eqaas 222

eque 31

equester 888

equi(pl.)29

equi (gen.) 29

equidem 325 yiii.

equis 321

equitare 24

eqao (dat) 29

eqao (abl.) 29

equ5d 326 iii.

equom 29

equorum 209 n. 2
eqno8 20, 23, 29, 31, 41,

136, 163
equos(acc pi.) 29, 224
eraiu 501
ero 441, 493, 509
erom U. 664. 3
es (imper.) 517
e8ca881

esoendero (fut.) 555
escit 488 a
esed 667 i. a
essem 142, 515
est 142, 161, 480 a
est ("eats") 209
esto 519
esarire 487 e
et 244, 342
eanti8(gen.)362, 363
ex 193, 341
examen 183
exanclare 391
existumo 174
extemplo 278
extempulo 215
exteri 387
extra 387

fabula 262

fac520

facillimus 894 n.

facillumed 326 iii.

faclo 100, 260

factu 528

factud 0. 668. 3

facturum (inf.) 528

faginus 898

fagus 55, 160, 294, 376

fallo 113

falsus 184

fama 262, 393

farci 517

fariolus 138

fateor 262, 484

fator 480 a

faveo 180

faxim 515

faxo 441, 493

feci 135, 260

feido 175, 259 IL

felare(inf.)373
felix 383
femen 354
feminis (gen.) 354
femur 354
fendol412», 487 a
fer 517, 520
feras 510
ferebamus 464
ferens 362
ferentem 308, 533
feres 493, 510
feretrum 388
ferimus 459, 480 h
ferio 487 a

ferire (aoristic) 547 ii. n. 1
fero 14, 100, 132, 147,

161, 259 vi., 643
fers 465, 520 n. 2
fert 133, 465
fertis 457
ferto 519, 621
fertor 523

ferunt 163, 362, 461
ferunto 521
feruntor 523
ferns p. 224
fesna- U. 663. 5 c
fides 55, 165, 269 ii.
fidimns 480 h
fido 176
fidustus 56
fiisna- O. 663. 5 c
filiabus 321
filii8 321
filius 162, 264
findo 481 A
fingo 481 (2
finio 172
firmlter 283
fissus 187
fisus 187
flabrum 196
flammescere 483 a
flamus 480 a
flavus 279, 403
flemus 480 a
flemus (pft) 212 n.
fleo 480 a
fles 480 a n. 1

602

INDICES OF WORDS

fletas 498

flevi 498

flo4dOa

Flora 384, 482 6 n. 1

floridus 880

fluvi 125

fodio 263

foedas 176, 259 ii.

folia 299 n. 2

foliae 299 n. 2

folii 299 n. 2

folium 299 n. 2

folas 138

foraa 135

foret 568

forma 393

formonsus 357

formosus 357

formus 393, 141 6, 148

fore 153, 166, 259 vi.,

278 n. 3
forsitan 278 n. 3
forte 269 vi., 278
fove (=fave) 180 n. 2
fragor 206
fragum 203
frateer U. 664. 1
fraterl06ii.a32,133,355
fratrem 93, 249
fratrus U. 663. 3
fraudo 177
fremo 206
fretum 206
frigidulus 390
frigo p. 149 n. 2
frigus 203, 237
fruatra 177
frutex 206
fuas 501 n. 3
fuat 172, 601 n. 3
fucus 199
fudit 179

fueram ( = fui) 551 n. 2
fuga 376
fugae 181 (1)
fugio 487 c
fui 227

fuisse (be dead) 549 i.
fuliginosus 357
fullonicus 382

fulvus 279, 403

fumns 393

fundo 138

funebris 204

funera (=funu8) 299 (5)

fur 528

furvus 403

fusid 0. 568

Fusius (Furius) 125

Gains 404 n. 3

gaudeo 485

gena 161

generare p. 224, 384, 482 h

genere 313, 528 i.

generis 31, 142

genibns 167

genitus 498

genius 157, 269 v.

genu 137, 371

genubus 167

genui 498

genuini (denies) 371

genus 31, 137, 142, 163,

259 v., 351
gerundus 538 n.
gignimus 480 d
gigno 137, 269 v.
gilvus 279, 403
glaber 141* iii.
glocire 487 c
gluten 141* ii.
gnarures (with ace.) p.

307 n.
gnatus 168
gracilentus 286
gradatim 326 y.
gradior 141* iiL
grus 141* ii.
gustare 178, 269 iii.
guttura 299

habere 113, 448
habilis 279
haec 325 yii.
haec (pi. neut.) 326 i.
halare 222
harena 126
bariolus 138
hau 236, 342
hand 236, 342

haut 235, 342
helvns 403
hemo Old L. ISS
hemonem 358
herrina O. 568
hiare 138
hibemus 206
hie 325 ▼-, 325 rii, .

i., 520
hiemps 138, 356
hisco 138, 483 a
historiam 249
hoc 325 vii.
hodie 325 viL
holus 138
homine 310, 313
hominem 258, 308
homines 209 n. 1, 223. *:
homini 311
homo 138, 258, 35S
homonem 358
homancio 360, 382
homunculas 382
ho[nce] 667 i. c
honor 295, 378
honos 295, 351
horior 487 a
hortus 378
hospes 163

hostis 103 i., 106 L, K-
humi 337. 6
humilis 390 n. 3
humillimns 394
humnns 0. 664. 1
humus 138, 215, 356
hunc 163
h<irz O. 668. 3

i5l7

ibo441

idem 225

iens 362, 363

ignis 370

ignotus p. 121 n. 1, 127.

378
liuvinu- U. 660
Ikuvins U. 660
ilico 163, 189, 249, 274.

278
illecebra 389

//. ITALIC INDEX

603

illi (loc.)326u.

illic 272, 326 ii.

illius 326 ii.

illustris 186

im 325 iii.

imbutus 53

Impos 163, 366

in- (neg.) 106 iii., 157

in 149, 247, 337. 7, 341

incesso 482 h

inciens 488

incipit 127

inclitus 536

include 177

inclutus 133, 146, 167,

378
incurvicenricus 275
inde 314 n. 1
ingens 362
inhonestus 378
inquam 453
inquilinus 139
inquit 331
insece 139 a
instigare 142
insulio 159 (1)
insulto 249
inter 283 n. 1
intercus 366
interior 387
intus 326 iii.
investigare 175
iouestoS 667 ii. c
iouxmenta 667 i. /, ii. h

ipsa 325 i.

ipse 325 i., 326 i.

ipsemet 326 iv.

irremeabilis 279

is (pron.) 325 iiL

ispiritus 249 n. 1

ista 325 ii.

istarnm 18, 142, 319

iste 325 ii.

isti(noin. pi.) 176, 317

isti (loc.) 326 ii.

istio 326 ii.

istinc 326 v.

istius 326 ii.

istortun 826 vi.

istudl63, 325 ii., 326 i.

istum (ace.) 148
it 480 a
iter 283
ito519
itur449

jacio 487 c

j]am 342

jecinoris 139 a, 354

jecur 139 a, 207 n. 1,

295, 354
Jovis (gen.) 197, 289
jucimdua 212
judex 284
juga 299, 317
jugum 144, 167, 303,

306, 876
jumenta 667 i. /
junctuB 481 c n. 1
jungo 52, 481 d
Juppiter 159(1), 293 n.
jus (broth) 144
jntns 498

juvencus 104,136, 171,381
mventus 299, 369
juvi 498

kartu U. 141* n. 1
Kerri 0. 663. 5 d
kumbened 0. 63

labea 299
labium 299
laborare 482 h
labosem (laborem) 125
lac 295, 306 n. 1
lacrima 373, 398
lacnima 100, 134
lactnca 383
laedo 174
laevos 174, 403
lambo 481 d
lana 154
lanugo 357
lapis 348
latrina 212
latrocinium 93
latus 154, 196
lavacrum 390
lavere 180

leotica 383

legam (fut.) 441, 493

legatus 378

lege 517

legebam 272

legebamini 49, 280

legere (imper. pass.) 325

n. 1
legere (inf.) 336. 4,515
legerem 272, 515
leges (2 sing, fut) 441,

493
leget 493
legi(inf.)836. 4
legimini (part.) 28, 49,

359, 400
legimini (imperat. pass.)

359, 523, 530
legio 860
legisse 528

legissem 280, 312, 515
legunto 18
leo 50, 362
leonis 50

leviorem (ace.) 352
levir 355
levis 141 c
lex p. 224, 875
Uber 231
liberum 386
libet 167
licet 278
lien 189

lignum 161 (2), 195
limpa 167
lino 481 h
linquo 139 a, 481 d
XiOKaxeir 0. 665. 4 d
lippus 104
lis 189
loca 299
locuples 347
locus 189, 249, 299
loidos 176
longinquos 286
lora 231
lubet 167
lubricus 100, 131
lucem (ace) 146
lucrum 390

604

INDICES OF WORDS

ludius 402

lad as 176

lumpa 167

lana 186

lupas 139 e n.

lutulentus 286

laxaria 374

luxariei (gen.) 809, 318

laxariem 308

luxuries 374

lympba 167

magister 887
magistreis 317
magnus 158
major 138, 222
Maleyentum 273 n. 2
malignus p. 220 n. 1,

274
manducare 98
manens 533
manu 313
manui 311
manum 308
manus 306
manus (gen.) 309
manus (n. pi.) 817
mare 165, 366
mar^o 857
manscalcus 20 n. 2
mater 106 ii, 148, 160,

355
matrer U. 664. 5 h
Matute (dat.) 311
me 327, 328 ii.
med 328 iv.

meddissO. 663. 56, 664.1
medlkels 0. 664. 5 h
medius 135, 172, 197
mefio- 0. 663. 2
megalesia (megalenaia)

127
mei 328 iii.
meio 138
melior 1 61
memento 519
memet 326 iv.
memini 259 r., 488, 494,

549 i.
meminit 26

mens 25, 259 v., 366

mensis 162, 321

menstruos 403

mentio 25, 287

meracus 383

merconnarius 194

merces 348

mergo 143, 483 a

metuo 487 e

mens 330

mi 328 v., 327

migrare 140 a, 230

mihi 328 v.

miles 143

milia 425

mina 216

Minerva 201, 259 v., 403

mingo 138

minister 387

minuo 481/

misceo 483 a

miser 142

misi 187

missum 187

moderare 482 h

modestus 482 6

modicus 382

modo 338. 10

moiros 176

molo 161

moltas 0. 664. 3

momordi 446, 497

monebam 462

monebo 441, 493

moneo 26, 172, 488

raonitus (part.) 488

monstrum 392

morbus 377

raordeo 446

morior 487 c

mora 287, 366

mortuos 206, 403, 536

motar U. 660, 664. 3

motus 498

movi 498

mox 322

mugatu U. 660

muietu U. 660

miiinikei 0. 664. 4

malctra 388

mulgeo 137, 148, 29C
mulsi 184
multa 378
murio 487 e
maris (gen.) 142
murmOFO 446
murus 176
mus 168, 289

nactua 158

nare 487 a

Nasica 383

nasus 142

natine U. 664. 2, 5 a

navem 289

navis 181 (4), 289 n. t

nebrundines 141 a

nebula 390

neco 351, 488

necopinato 339

nefrones 141 a

nemo 138, 214

nemus259 iv.

neo 149

nepos 347

nerf U. 668. 6

neu 129, 178

neuter 123. 6

nidor 195

nidus 143, 199, 259 i

nihil 214

nil 138, 214

ninguit 141 a

Niumsieis O. 664. 5 h

uiven 141 a

no 487 a

nobis 329

noceo 488

noctis 139 e

nomina 817

nominis (gen. ) 358

nomner (gen.) U. 358,

664. 5 h
nonus 415, 434
nos 329
nosco 14, 137
noster 330, 387
nostri 329
nostrum (gen.) 329
notio 857

//. ITALIC INDEX

605

nova 291, 376

novem 415

noveram 650

uovi 494, 549 L, 550

novissimus 394

novitas 241, 369 n. 1

novos 161, 180

novum 291, 376

novus 149, 291, 376

nox 103 ii., 347

uoxa 351

nucleus 186

uudius 167

num 342

Numasioi (dat.) 181 (3),

811
Numeric (dat.) 181 (3)
nuncupassit 515
nundiniim 434
nurns 104
nutrio 487 c
uutrix 228 n. 2, 487 c

ob341

obdormiscere 483 a
obedio 176 n. 2
obsidio 360
obsidium 360
obtulit ( = obtulerat) 651
occideris ( = plpf.) 570
occiduos 404
occultua 152
ocris 370
octavuB 433

Octember 406

octingenti 424

octo 103 ii., 106 i., 163,
414

octodecim 417

octuaginta 433

oculusll4, 139 a, 197

odi549i.

odor 134

oenus 176

oleaginus p. 220 n. 1

oleaster 392

oleo 134

oleum 404 n. 3

olim 326 v.

olivaiei, 404 n. 3

olivum 161, 404 n. 3

olor 161

omnia 370

operaretur 568

opilio 179 n. 1

opinio 360

opprimo 161 (1)

optimu8 80, 128, 167, 394

optumus 80, 128, 167

opulentus 286

ora 164, 299

orator (with aoc.?) 333. 6 a

orniis 55

osatu U. 660

oves 211, 317

ovi 311

ovile 366

ovis 63, 114, 172, 180,

306, 309, 366
ovia (ace. pi.) 317 n.

pacis (gen.) 185
paganus 58
pahnaris 370
palus (-udis) 348
pandidi 62
pando 52, 194
pango 105, 481 d
papaver 353
parasitaster 392
paraveredns 20 n. 2
paricidas 293, 306
pars 154, 278, 287, 366
partem 360, 366
partim 278, 326 v., 360,

366
parturire 487 c
pasco 142, 483 a, 484
pascor 381
passuB 187, 190
pater 130, 162, 169, p.

220 n. 2, 254, 295, 306,

355
paterfamilias 309
patre 48, 310, 313
patrem 48, 308
patres 317
Patricolea 215
patris 48, 259 vi.
patrias 402

patruas 405 n. 2

paucus 130, 177

pax 105

pecto 484

pectora 299

pecu 50

pecunia 50

pecuB (-oris) 50

pecus (-udis) 50, 848

pede 165, 209, 2591., 310,

311, 313, 314
pedem 42, 156, p. 224,

258
pedes 223, 317
pedester 388
pedestris 190
pedetentim 326 v.
pedlca 382
pejor 394
pellis 146, 161
pello 187, 259 viL, 481 h
penes p. 40 n. 2, 812,

337.8
penna 194
pennis 321
penus 312
pepigi 105, 185
pepuli 259 vii.
pepulit 446
peregrinus 399
peremust 0. 665. 3
perfidns 538 n.
pergo 228
periclum 133, 390
periculum 215, 390
peril 549 i.
persnimu U. 481 a n.,

665. 6 a
pes 100, 104, p. 224, 258,

289, 375
pessimos 394
pigerrimuB 394 n.
pihafei(r) U. 665. 8
pihaner U. 663. 5 a
piha;s U. 663. 3
Pilipus 117
pilum 188
pilus 390
pingo 481 d
plnsio 188

606

INDICES OF WORDS

pinso 487 c

pinus 373

pis 0. 139 i. h, 668. 1

piscina 399

piscis 103 i.

plantas (2 sing. pres. ) 211

plans tnim 177

plebes 55, 366

plecto 484

pleo 227

pleores 352

pletns 498

plevi 498

ploirumos 352

plostram 177

plumbago 357

plurimus 352

poculum 215

pomerium p. 160 n. 2,

176, 224, 493
noMTTtej 0. 402 n. 2
pondus p. 105 n.
pono 224
Pontius 402 n. 2
popler U. 664. 5 h
poploe (dat.) 311
porca 153
porcus 147
porrigo 147
porrum 153
portio 360
portust U. 665. 4 c
posco 188, 483 a
posivi 224
possem 570
possim 570
posterior 394
postumus 290, 343, 394
poBui 224
potior 487 c
potiri (locis) 337. 4 a
potis 114, 138, 163, 277
potus 378
prae341
praebeo 278
praeda 141* iii.
praefamino 523
praesaepe 366
praesens 157, 363
praidad 310

precor 483 a

prehendo 141* iii, 481 d
prelum 188, 392
premo 478 n. 1
presbyter 9
pressi 478 n. 1
primus 394, 427
principatus 372
prisons 394
prismu P. 663. 5 c
pristinus 394, 401
probitus 665. 9
probrum 389, 391 n. 4
procus 483 a
profecto 273
propinquos 286
proseseto U. 663. 7
protervus 192
protinus 249
pruina 201
pmna 226

prupehast U. 665. 2
puellula 390
pulcherrimus 394
pull us 152

pulsus 151, 152, 259 rii.
pumilio 360

Pumpaiianefs 0. 664. 5 h
Pftntiis 0. 402 n. 2
purgo 228
purigo 228
pds 0. 664. 3
puteo 168

quadraginta 421
qnadringenti 424
quae (fern.) 325 viL
quae (pi. neut.) 326 i.
quaero 482 h
quaeso 482 h
qualis 370
qualum 222
quam (conj.) 342
qnartus 410, 430
quatio 487 e
quattuor 180, 139 6
que 342
queo 488
queror 198
qui 325 vi., 326 i.

qui (loc.) 837. 8
quia 842

quid 325 vi., 826 i
quidlibet 274
quin 342
quinctus 431
qnindecim 228
quingenteaimus 437
quinquaginta 421
quinque 139 6, 150, 1:

(2), 411
quintus 431
quis 139 6, 325 ri.
qum (quom) 125
quo 342
quod 139 a, 326 vi., 3ty -

342
quoi (nom. ) 667 i- t
quoi (dat. ) 326 ii.
quoins 326 ii.
quom 125, 342
quoniam 205
quot annis 337. 2
quot mensibos 337. 2

rape 517

rapio 487 c

rastmm 392

ratis 366

rectnrns 528

rectus 378

reditus (with ace) 3S3.

6a
regamur 449
regar 449
regei 667 i. d
regere 528
regeremur 449
regerer 449
regimur 449
regina 399
regio 360
regnabat 548 ii.
regor 449
rehte U. 663. 4
reminiscor 26
reppuli 228
res 181 (2), 281
restio 360
reticuisset 570

//. ITALIC INDEX

607

•ettuli 228

♦ex p. 224, 806 n. 1

•exi 502

■exisse 528

•igor 203, 237, 487 iiL n.

•obigo 179 n. 1

-obus 179

•ogitus 665. 9

•ogo (with 2 ace.) 833.

6c
Koma 203
Romae 313
Elomai 309
'ostrum 392
•uber 185, 147, 196
nibrum (ace.) 386
•uctare 231
nidimus 480 b
•iidis 367

•ufus 135, 179 n. 1
*uma 393
nirapo 481 d
rumputus 53
runcina 481 c
runcinaro 481 c
ruj)enint 552 iii.
rusticus 882

iacaraciriz P. 661

iacer 394 n., 667 ii. a

lacerdos 215, 347

lacerrimus 894 n.

uieclum 391

laeculum 215

iaepio 487 c

laeptus 192

lagire 142

takaraklom O. 661

lakarater 0. 665. 7

jakrafir O. 665. 8

lakros 394 n., 667 ii. a

(al 142, 289

liilinae 399

(alio 249

;allo 183, 289 n. 2, 485

lam 325 i.

tapio 164 n. 2, 487 c

larci 517

iaa 325 L

latiis 260

Bcala 188, 222, 392

scelus 118, 161

scibam 501

scibo 441, 493

sciebam 501

scilicet 278

soindo 481 a

scisco 483 a

screare 189

scriba 293

scriftas O. 668. 4, 664. 3

scripsi 497

86 (pron.) 328 ii.

86 (adv.) 841

secare 198

secerno 206

86candu8 428

86curiin 808

86d 328 iv., 341

8edeo 184, 142, 159 i.

sedes 55, 866

sedi 494

sedibus 199

sedimas 497

seditio 841

sedulas 249

seges 847

X6ntum 198
890
86mel 106 iii., 156
8eni6n 142, 162, 260
semifer p. 224
8eniodiu8 228
86mper 259 iv.
senati 282
senatas (g6n. ) 282
senectus 369
8en6x 349, 882
seni 188
senis (gen.) 382
septem 130, 418
Septimus 432
septingenti 420, 424
septuaginta 433
sequere (2 sing, pros.)

168, 449, 474
sequere (imper.) 520
sequeris 449, 474 n. 2
sequi 544
sequimini 449

sequor 139 a

serfe U. 663. 5 d

serimus 446

sermo 359

sero (vb.) 142, 162, 165,

480 (£
servitudo 369
servitus 369
servos 125, 163
sessus 188
seu 128. 6, 178
sevimus 498
sex 412
sexaginta 422
sextus 188, 431
si (sei) 342
sibi 828 v.
sibila 299
sibilus 299
sic 520

siccus 244, 882
sidimus 480 d
sido 148, 199, 225, 259 i.
siem 512
sies 142
silere 113. 2
silvaticus 382
sim 512

siuiilis 370, 890
simplex 156, 259 iv.
simus (vb.)166, 512
sinister 887
sino 113. 2, 481 h
sipus 0. 164, 353
siquis 325 vi.
sistamus 510 n. 2
sistimus 446, 480 c
sistit 480 c
sisto 165, 446, 480 d
sitio 487 c
slaagi- 0. 663. 5 c
sobrinus 204, 399
socer 180, 201
solidus 880
solium 134, 259 i.
somnus 142, 396
sons 863
sorex 401

soror 180, 201, 356
80S 326 i.

608

INDICES OF WORDS

80V08 380
spafu U. 194
spatium 194 n. 2
species 374
-specio 487 a
spQctatum (supine) 333,

\d
sperno 142, 481 6
spes 194 n. 2
spiritum 249
splendeo 189 u.
spondee 488
spopondi 446
spretus 189
spuma 113, 393
spuo 197

stabulum 215, 391
starem 515
statif 0. 664. 2
sUtim 262, 326 v., 360
statio 165, 169, 262
stationem 360
Statis 0. 402 n. 2
stativos 404
statos O. 664. 3
statua 404
statue 172
stem 512
stemus 512
sternamus 510 n. 2
steterunt 497
steti 52, 446, 481 c
stetinius 446
stilus 196
stipendium 228
stips 346
stlis 189
stlocus 189
stratus 154, 189
studium 402
stupidus 380
sua vis 142, 160, 367,

374
sub 337. 7
subiugus 538 n.
Bubtemen 188
subter 337. 7
sudor 142, 487 iii. n.
8uemus(pft.)212n.
sui 328 iii.

suinus 166, 399

sum(7b.)62, 215,453

sum (proii.) 325 L

sumus 215

suo (yb.) 142

super 198, 341, 337. 7,

386
surgo 228
surpui 228
sus 168, 289
suus 330
svai 0. 842

tacere 448

ta^ez U. 660

tactio (with ace.) 333. 6 a

taedet 196

taeter 196

talis 370

tangineis 0. 664. 5 6

tanginom O. 664. 2, 5 a

tanginud 0. 664. 2, 5 a

tango 481 c?

Tarentum 273

to 328 ii.

techina 215

ted 328 iv.

teer[(im] 0. 663. 5 d

tego 93, 141* ii.

tela 186, 223

tellus 161

temere 204

temet 326 iv.

temno 481 h

temperi 351

temporis 351

temulentus 286

tendo 194, 480 e

tenebrae 204

teneo 480 e

tenuis 133, 157

ten us, 57, 249

terebra 183

terei 0. 664. 4

teremniss 0. 663. 3

termen 281, 295, 317,

359, 400
terminus 400
termo 295, 306, 317, 859,

400

terrae (loc.) S37. 6
tertius 429
testudo 357
tetuli 259 viL, 44€. 4-

texi 502

teztrix 188

tibi 328 V.

tignum 161 (2), 195 '

tilia 192

timendum (poezkfts; -

66
timldas 380
tintinnio 487 h
toga 93
tollo 162, 196, 259 Tt

481 h
tondeo 446, 488
tondutoa 53
tonstrina 188, 190
topper 325 IL
tostus 188
totiens 223
toties 223
totondi 446
tovos (tuus) 161, 15.

330
tres 100, 211, 409
tria 409
trigesimus 436
triginta 317, 421
trimestris 403
tripudium 48, 259 L
tuber 206

tuemdam (taendam) 127
tui 328 iii.

tuli 106 iv., 196, 548
tulo 106 iv., 196
tumeo 206
turba 100

turbae (nom. pi.) 317
turbarem 515
turbas 318
turbassem 515
turbassim 515
turbassitur 515
turba vissem 515
turbo 487 c
turdus 188
turgere 483 a
turgesoere 483 a

//. ITALIC INDEX

609

s367

tu U. 668. 5 d

17

ii 465

330

342

185, 153
J42

ivis O. 668. 4
etie U. 664. 2
uf O. 668. 6, 664. 2
. 146

;u8 481 e n. 1
IS, 163
a 194, 854
ecim, 417
eviginti 418
uit 481 c n. 1
s 149, 176, 396, 407
io 179 n. 1
annam O. 668. 5 a
aseter P. 568
icus 382
uus 480 h

178
il87
342
i342

r "8kin.bottle"196
um387

3seii8 0. 665. 4 c
)rcula 390

nvos 404
nios 404
[>orl98
10 138, 171
278

iim 161, (Bi) 570
ilk'ius 402
Hem (si) 670
alius 402
lox 383
ndere 228
ndidi 52

yendo 52

Tendutos 53

yenenum 223

Venerus 809

yenio 18, 68, 140 a, 156,

205, 487 a
yenitur 449
yeninntur 449
yenumdare 228
Venus 55, 381
yenustus 55 n. 1
yeritates 296
vermis 370
yerto 31, 484
Vertumnns 400
yesica 228
yester 330, 387
yetus 55 n. 1, p. 129 n. 1,

351
vetustus 55 n. 1
yiass 0. 663. 6
yicesimus 486
yici(loc.)209, 809, 313
yici (nom. pi.) 317
yicimus (shall haye won)

552 y.
yicinus 399
yicis 176, 181 (3), 227
yico(dat)181(8), 311
yioorum 319
yictor 374
yictrix 374
yicum 303, 308
yicns 142, 294, 306, 348,

876
yide 274, 517
yidebam 515
yiden 272
yideram 482 a, 507
yidere 259 ii.
yidere (3 pi. pft.) 497
yiderem 515
yiderim 498 n. 1, 513
yidero 493, 497
yiderunt 497
yidi 259 u., 494, 497
yidi88e528

vidissem 515

yidisti 477

yidistis 504

yidit 176, 477, 497

yidoa 21

yiduoB 21, 23, 135

yidutus 58

yiginti 315, 420

yilla 186

villanas 58

yim 308

yina296

yindez 284

yir 165, 228

yirtos 369

yis 289, 306

yiso 482 h

yisus 187, 192

vitabundus (with aoc.)

333. 6 h
yitis 166, 171, 287
yitulns p. 129 n. 1
yitos 372
ylti O. 668. 7
yiyos 140 c, 403
A>bi8 329
yooiyos 404 *
yolare 140 6, 488
yolitare 488
yolnus 183
yoluntarios 228
yolup 215, 348 n. 1
yolyo 161
yomica 882
yorare 63, 140 5
yorsus 31, 184, 190
yos 329
yoster 330
yostri 329
yostnim 329
yoz p. 224
yolpes 139 c
yolya 140 h

zeiref U. 663. 6
zicolo- 0. 658

2 R

III. Gebmanic Index

The following abbreviations are used: Da. = Dutch, G.=: German, E.*
High German, L.G. =Low German, Go. = Gothic, K.^Norae, S.=Si&:
Sc.= Scotch, 0.=01d as in O.H.G.=01d ffigh German. English »
whether old or modern have no distinguishing mark.

a 149, 176
a 172
abed 241
able 279

•ere 100, 147, 169, 386
n 192 ^^» Vfj,

Sgru 01

setheling 286

against 80

agnail 150

ahtduGo. 103 ii., 106 i.,

163
aihvatundi Go. 20
dinlifGo. 417
ains Go. 176
air 79
aiw 172
diw Go. 172
aiweins Go. 899
aka N. 261

akrsGo. 100,147, 159
an 149, 176
an 396, 407
and 133, 159
answer 159
apron 240
axja Go. 150
fiscian 192
ask 192
asts Go. 143

asunder 841
ate 162

dukan Go. 177
auso Go. 104
axle 392

ba 329 i.

badi Go. 263

bscestre 279

bser 259 vi.

baira Go. 100

bairan Go. 161 n. 1

bairand (3 pi. pres.) Go.

163, 461
bake 51
baker 279
band 93

barm (bosom) 393
bauerknecht G. 58
Baxter 279
bead 259 iii.
bear (vb.) 14, 100, 182,

147, 161
bear 30

beareth 133, 455
bearing 363
bearm 259 vi.
beam (bairn) 259 vi
bears (3 sing, pres.)

455
bfd263

bedder 287 n. 1
bedmaker 287 n. 1
bee 199

beech 160 n. 1, 376
beechen 898
beef 9
belife 104
beodan 259 iiL
beranO.H.G. 161
beran 259 Ti
bera0 461
berende 363
BeigG. 24
hevSi (baked) Sc 5:
bid 165, 175
bidjan Go. 165, 176
bileiba Go. 104
bind 93, 102
binda Go. 102
birth 153, 165, 287
bishop 9
bitter G. 81
biuda Go. 102
blackbird 285
blame 9
blaspheme 9
blue 279, 403
bdctreo(w) 160
book 50
books 50
borough 24, 109

///. GERMANIC INDEX

611

th 329

linden 397

yoott(vb.)278

ie 24

idegroom 138

ittle 81

3therl04, 112iii., 132,

133, 855

JtVor 104, 106 iL, 259

vi.

ader G. 112 iii.

ri>fa)>8 Go. 163

ckwheat 160

don 259 iii.

rg G. 24

r(u)g 109

irgundy 24

irke 24

rke (vb.) 24

irh 109

t 79, 277

If 140 h

lue 30

IS 259 iii.

Quan 259 v.

osan 178, 259 iii.

lid 109

ildish 381

ildren 61

in 161

ind O.H.G. 259 v.

cose 178

iristian 192

dre 109

:izenship 369 n. 1

imb Sc. 51

ly 141* u.

;ave (adhere) 51

jave (split) 51

imb 51

mbl32

me (part) 30

me 30, 140 a, 156

ntent (adj.) 288

ntent(8ub8t.)288

w 9, 140 a, 289

ane 141* ii.

ap (vb.) Sc 61

eep 51

cwelan p. 134 n. 1
cyun 259 y.

deed 260

dags Go. 163

dankbarkeit G. 286

darling 286

daughter 112 ii., 355

day 163

deed 112 ii.

dich G. 49

dir G. 49

do 96, 100, 135, 260

dolmetscher G. 24

ddm260

door 135

doubt 9

doute 9

drigil O.H.G. 113

diicker 287 n. 1

eage 139 a

eahta 414

ear 104

earing 20 n. 2, 159

eat 485

eggs 61

ehu O.S. 20

eight 163, 414

eke 177

ekinn K. 261

ell 146

etum Go. 162

ewe 172, 366

eye 139 a

eyren 61

fact 10

fadar Go. 169

fader 104

fadrsCgen.) Go. 259 vi.

fadmm (dat. pi.) Go.

259 vi.
fseder 104, 259 vi.
faegen 897
fagan O.L.G. 397
falhn Go. 50
fain 397
Ml 113, 488
fallow 403

famllS

fangen 10

fangs Sa 10

farrow 147

father 79, 80, 104, 180,

162, 355
fathom 81
fault 9
faut 9

faws Go. 177
fearh 147
fecht Sc. 484
fee 50
feet 50

fell (subst) 146
fell 488

felt (subst.) 390 .
feorffa 430
feowertig 421
few 130, 177
fidwor Go. 130
fif 139, 411
nfta431
fiftig 421
figi. -*"
fin 3^

filled ^past) 30
film 146
fimf Go. 139 h
fish 103 i.
fisks Go. 103 i.
five 139 6, 150, 411
flat 77

flechten G. 484
flee 51, 130
fliehen G. 130
fly (vb.) 51
foal 152
foam 113
f5nl0
foot 50, 100, 112 La» 282,

289
football 287 n. 1
footer 287 n. 1
foremost 394
forleas 104
forleosan 104
forloren 104
forluron 104
forschen G. 483 a

612

iot289
iotu Go. 156
fotuB Go. 100
four 130, 139 b

frauenzimmer G. 299
freeze 201
fresher 287 n. 1
freshman 287 n. 1
frius Go. 201
ful (foul) 168
furhl63
furlong 153
furrow 153
further 387
fuss G. 112 i. a
f5rr8t427
fyCer- 139 b

gabadr1>8 Go. 153
gsers 192
gamunds Go. 25
ganian 138
ganisan Go. 188 n. 1
gans Go. 100, 138
gardener 355 n. 1
gas p. 30 n.
gasts Go. 103 i., 106 i.,

p. 153 n. 1
g&ut Go. 179
gawiss Go. 103 iii.
geard378
geboren 259 vi
gebyrd 153
gecoren 259 iii.
gemynd 25, 259 y.
genumen 259 iv.
geotan 138
gerechtigkeit G. 286
gerste G. p. 149 n. 2
jesoden 104
get 141* iii.
get-at-able 279
gibai Go. 181 (1)
gilfigu O.S. 299
gimnier 138
ginan 138
girs Sc. 192
giutan Go. 138

INDICES OF WORDS

glad 141* iii.

!hund( = 100)423

go 544

hundred 104, 419

goose 100, 138

hundteontig 423

gowt 138

huzd Go. 191

grass 192

greenish 381

I 161, 327

grids Go. 141* iu.

Io327

grist 158 n. 3

ich H.G. 112 i. h

guest 103 i., p. 153 n. 1.

idel (idle) 261

guma Go. 138

idle 174

idolatry 228

haban Go. 118. 448

ikL.G. 112 i. 6, if

hafts Go. 108. ii.

impi O.H.G. p^ 37^

haai46

in 149

halrto Go. 100

Innbruck 112 ii.

hale (vb.) 146

Innspruck 112 ii

hardiza Go. 352

is 161

hare 104

ist Go. G. 161

harvest 141* i.

base G. 104

juggs Go. 104
juk Go. 167
jus Go. 171

hatirn Go. 106 iv.

have 113

He (subst) 277

heall 141* i.

kamm G. 132

heart 100, 134

kidney 141 a n. 1

heavy 382

kin 137, 167

help 77

kinnus Gro. 161

hengest 20 n. 2

Eirsteen 192

hengst G. 20 n. 2

kiusanGk). 178

him 325 v.

knabe G. 58

hindmost 394

knave 58

history 93

knee 137

hither 326 v.

knight 58

hlSnan 136

kniu Go. 187

hlffiw 136

know 14, 187

hliftus Go. 103 u.

bind 133, 146, 167 n. 1

lachter Sc 388

(H)ludwig G. 167

lagu299

hoard 191 n.

lassen G. 112 i. o

hogshead 285
hole 152

lean (vb.) 136

leihwan Go. 139 a

horn 106 iv., 351

lend p. 181 n. 5

hors 20 n. 2

leoht 146

horse 482 b

let 112 i. a

horselaugh 20 n. 1

leumund G. 157

horseplay 20 n. 1
hound 136

[cattle-] lifting 103

lifts (2 sing. pr«s.

hrosG.H.G. 20n. 2

light (adj.) 141 c
light (subet.) 146
1fbanlS9a

hulundi Go. 152

bund 136

///. GERMANIC INDEX

613

ike 288

ikely 283

iver 207 n. 1

lilangollen 77

oan p. 131 n. 6

och 76

oon Sc. 68, 60

oud 133, 167 n. 1, 878

oun 60

oved 442, 649 n. 1

ow (subst.) 186, 408

own 60

[judlow 136

ychgate 288

ykewake 283

yteliDg 286, 846

DQagus Go. 141 a D. 2
□aaiden 399
DQafhstns Go. 138
cnan 79, 96
manhood 369 n. 1
manlike 283
manly 283

marascalh O.H.G. 20 d. 2
mare 20 n. 2
marshal 20 n. 2
mawi Go. 141 a n. 2
may be 278
me 327, 328 iL
mearh 20 n. 2
med (meed) 148
mena Go. 162
meno>8 Go. 162
mere (=mare) 20 n. 2
mich G. 49
middle 136
midge 109
migan 188
migge 109
mild 485

milk (vb.) 137, 148
miltecheitM.H.G. 286
miltekeit M.H.G. 286
mind 25
mir 6. 49
moder 104
modor 104, 106 ii
mona 162
month 162

moon 162

mother 104, 148,160,866

mu8 (mouse) 142, 168,

289
mutton 9
mycg 109

nahisto O.H.G. 352
nahts Go. 103 ii.
nahts(geD.)Go. 847
nam (vb.) 269 iT.
nam (subst.) 299
namaO.H.G. 299
napery 240
nasjan Go. 188 n. 1
neaht 139 c
nebel G. 890
nebul O.H.G. 390
needle 149
nere 141 a
nest 143, 199, 269 i.
nestling 286
new 149, 876
next 352
nickname 240
night 139 c, 847
nigon 416
nim 10
nima 161
nima Go. 164
niman 10, 259 iv.
nimen 10
nine 416
no 79
noon 58
not 214
now 167

o'241

od-force 24

of 241

ok N. 261

on 241

one 149, 176, 396, 407

One (subst.) 277

'oo' Sc. 176 ta. 1

*oon' Sc. 176 n 1

open (SchoUr) 270

dra 164

orange 240

2 B 2

other 428

otor 147

otter 147

aOer 428

out 341

over 386

oxhoft G. 285 n* 2

pagan 58
palfrey 20 n. 2
pferd G. 20 n. 2, 74
pfund G. 112 i. t
photograph 9 n. 1
pillar's 80
poetaster 392
pork 9

pound 112 i. c
Praise-God (Barebones)

284
presbyter 9
pride 77
priest 9

progress (subst) 288
progress (vb.) 288
Pst ! 83
pund 112 i. e
punster 279

qiman Go. 140 a
qiuB Go. 140 c
quail 140 6
queen 140 a
quell 140 6
quick 140 e

rack(vb.) 147
rafhts Go. 161 n. 3
rang 81, 549 n. 1
rduds Go. 179
reach 147
red 135
right 378
ross G. 20 n. 2
ruddy 135, 147
Rugger 287 n. 1

Sachaen G. 318 n. 1
s£d260

saihwan Go. 139 a
saUow 279, 403

614

INDICES OF' IVORDS

salt 142, 289
same 259 iy.
sang 30, 81, 32, 48, 442,

549 n. 1
saljan Go. 259 i.
saw 79
sawan 162
say 189 a
schaf 6. 112 i c
schlafen O. 112 L c
schliessen O. 189
schloss 6. 189
sohbn 6. 80
sculd O.H.G. 113
scyld 113
seamstress 279
sear (sere) 261
sea9104
secgan 139 a
see 139 a
seed 142, 162
seek 142
seojian 104
set 259 L, 488
settle (sabst) 390
se)>8 Go. 142
seyen 130, 418
sew (past of sow) Sc 51
sew 142
share 141* i.
sham So. 354
she 325 i.
shear 141* i.
sheep 9, 112 i. c
sibun Go. 130, 413
sich G. 49
sieg G. 168
sien 166
siexta 431
sigor 168
silan Go. 113. 2
Sim O.H.G. 166
sin O.H.G. 166
sing 80, 81, 442
sirG. 49

sister 190 n. 1, 855
sit 142, 259 i., 488
six 412

skalks Go. 20 n. 2
skam N. 854

sleep 112 L c

slepan Go. 112 L c

slipor 100

slippery 100, 181

slit 51

slot 189

slow 174, 408

slutU O.S. 189

smart 202

smitten 81

snaiws Go. 141 a, n. 2

snora 104

snow 141 a

Socker 287 n. 1

soldier 143 n. 8

some 259 iy.

songstress 279 .

sooth 157

sow (yb.) 51, 142, 162

sow (sabst) 289

spaewife 103 i.

speak 112 i. 6

spehon O.H.G.^08 i.

speir Sc. 142 n. 1

spinner 279

spinster 279

sprecan 112 i. 6

sprechen H.G. 112 i. h

spreken L.G. 112 L 6

spur 142

spiiren G. 142 n. 1

spurn 142

spyrian 142 n. 1

stSger 175

8t8eS262

stair 175

stanration 287 n. 1

stead 165, 169

steed 299

steer 9

stick (yb.) 142

stigan 175

stol 262

stream 18, 190 n. 1, 203

stud (of horses) 299

stute G. 299

sty 175

su (sow) 168, 289

subject (subst) 288

subject (yb.) 288

sudon 104
sugars 296
sums Go. 106 iiL. .'
sung (ptcp.) 8u, 4^
sung (past) 31, 32
sunge 48
sungon 48
superficies 9
surface 9
sweat 142
sweet 142, 160
sweetbread 285
swefn 142, 396
sweostor 855 d. '2
swine 9, 166. 399
systir N. 355 n, 2

tacor 855
t»cean 184
taCT Go. 100
talhun Go. 136
taihuntehund Gc ■>.
tdikns Oo. 105
take 10
talk 24

tat H.G. 112 ii.
teach 184
tear (subst.) 100
teihaGo. 105
telegram 9 n. 1
telephone 9 n. 1
ten 186, 161, 416
thak Sc. 141* iL
thane 896
that 168, 325 iL
thatch 141* ii., nU
thee 828 iL
thin 75, 133, 157
thole (yb.) 106 i v.. J
thorp 100
thousand 425
thrall 113
three 100, 409
thrill 183
tien 416
timber 148
tiuhan Go. 178
tochter G. 112 ii.
together 80
token 134

///. GERMANIC INDEX

615

:olcM.H.6. 24

;olk Da. 24

iongs 481 h

;ooth 112 i a, 134

i6)> 134

:ow(vb.)l78

Tickster 279

Tripos 58

;ruly 283

xuth 287

;ruths 299

ruesday 289

;wa 408

;wa-l!Bs-twentig 418

wain 408

;walif Go. 417

jwegen 408

;wentig 420

iwenty 420

;weiity-four 418

;wice 408

;wie8 408

;wist 408

wo 112 i. a, 184, 408

>ahan Go. 448
>ana Go. 148
>ara 142
>aarp 100
>eccaii 141* ii.
>egn 396
iliuhan Go. 130
'olian 152, 259 viL
>ragjan Go. 113
>ri5ll N. 113
7reis Go. 100
5reo 409
5ri409
Sridda 429

Sritig 421
>ula Go. 106 iv.
)>ulaQ Go. 152
]>usund N. 425

iiber G. 80

udder 135

uder 135

uu- (neg. ) Go. 106 iii., 157

unco Sc. 878

uncouth 378

understandable 279

us 329

use 10

utter (adj.) 341

villain 58
villein 58
vril24

wsegn 138

wieps 192

wajsp 192

wain 138, 171

wait Go. 106 i., 176
i wan 397 n. 3
I wanhope 397
I wanton 397

warm 141 6, 148, 393

wash (vb.) 483 a

wasp 192

wat (wot) 259 ii.

water 354, 483 a

watius (gen.) Go. 354

wato Go. 164

we 329

wear 51

weigh 138

weitwods Go. 164

were (subj.) 442
wether p. 129 u. 1
what 139 a, 325 vi.
whether 387
who 79
-wick 376
wide 420
widow 136
widuwo Go. 21
wines 296
wish (subst) 381
wish (vb.) 483 a
witan 259 ii.
with 420
withy 166, 171
wolf 139 c
world 165
worth (vb.) 484
wot 176, 494
wusc 381

Xanten G. 313 n. 1

yard 378

yawn 138

yclept 109

ye 329 i.

yeast 144

yellow 279, 403

yhight 109

ymb 132

yoke 144, 167, 376

young 104, 136, 171, 3S1

youngling 286, 345

youth 299

ywis 103 iii.

zahn G. 74, 112 i. a
zimmer G. 148
zwei G. 112 i. a

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

The details of each headins will be found in the Table of Contents.
The references are to sections.

Accent :

Degrees of 95 ; of original Idg.
language 94 ; Greek 266—271 ;
Latin 266, 272—4 ; pitch-accent
88, 90 ff., 249 ; efifects of pitch 92 ;
kinds of pitch-accent 97 ; stress-
accent 88— -9, 91 ff., 249, 288 ; effects
of stress-accent 93 ; accent-points
96 ; words without accent 98 ; vowel-
gradation 31—2, 261—266, 288.
, Adverbe :

Formation of 278, 340 ff.
Alphabet 601—609:

Attic 116, Latin 123.
Analogy :

A psychological force 46 ; classi-
fication of types of a. 47 ; combin-
ation of types of a. 64 ; crosses
Germanic sound changes 104 ; For-
mal a. 60—53 ; Logical a. 48, 184 ;
Proportional a. 49 ; relation to Se-
masiology 68.

Analogy in gender 56, 294 ; in
Syntax 56—7 ; in formation of ad-
verbs 278 ff., of adjectives 279, of
verb 280 ; in noun-formation 282,
286 ; declension 293, 306, neuter
299 ; suffix of gen. sing. 309, of
instrumental 314, of Lat. nom. pi.
317, of nom. pi. neuter 317 ; of
gen. pi. 319 ; of Gk. dat. pi. 322—
4 ; in stem suffixes 345 ; in I^tin
names of months 406.

Analogy in verb-formation 480 a,
487 c iii. ; in n- verbs 481 c ii., rf, e ;
in pft 496 — 7—8 ; in aorist 602—
3 ; in plupft. 606 — 7 ; in subj. 610
— 511 ; in opt. 612 — 6 ; imperat.
621—3 ; infin. 530.
ConjnnctlonB 278, 342.
Dialects (see Language) :

Gk. dialects 610—656, Italic dia-
lects 667—666.
Qender (see Analogy) 291—6.

Adaptation in 28 ; borrowing in
1. 9—11, 69—61 ; definition of
spoken 1. 66 ; influence of dialects
in languajg;e 69 — 66 ; isolation as an
inflaence in L 111 ; race and L 611.

Science of L : does it exist I 45 ;
history of 39 — 44.
Langoagee:

Comparison of 6 ; Indo-Germanic
6 ; original Idg. language and civi-
lization 16 — 7 ; characteristics of
Idg. 1. 12—4 ; list of Idg. 1. 16 ;
interrelation of Idg. 1. 18—9 ; dif-
ferences between Idg. and other
langua^ 20 ff. (Isolating 1. 33,
Agglutinative 1. 34, Semitic 1. 35).
Noon (see Accent, Analogy) :

Simple 281 ; compound 281 , 284 ff. ;
root nouns 289 ; n. with form-
ative suffixes 290 — 4 ; verbal nouns
684—688 ; reduplication in, 288,

I 1

3 2044 038 399 341

Uj 194f
OCT 2C IMT

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